Transportation Engineering- II
Lecture 7
Course Instructor:
Engr. Muhammad Yasir
Lecturer
Department of Civil Engineering
UET, Mardan
By
Engr. Muhammad Waseem
Lecturer Department of Civil Engineering
UET, Jalozai
1
Design of Flexible Pavement
2
Pavement Design
Pavement Thickness design is the determination of thickness
of various pavement layers (of various pavement materials)
for a given soil condition and the predicted design traffic (in
terms of equivalent standard axle load) that will provide the
desired structural and functional performance over the
selected pavement design life.
3
Flexible Pavement Design
In the design of flexible pavements, the pavement structure
usually is considered as a multilayered elastic system.
The material in each layer characterized by certain physical
properties that may include the modulus of elasticity, the resilient
modulus, and the Poisson ratio.
The application of a wheel load causes stress in each layer of the
flexible pavement.
4
Stresses in Flexible Pavement
The maximum vertical stresses are compressive and
occur directly under the wheel load.
These decrease with an increase in depth from the surface.
5
Stresses in Flexible Pavement
The maximum horizontal stresses also occur directly under the wheel load but
can be either tensile or compressive.
When the load and pavement thickness are within certain ranges, horizontal
compressive stresses will occur above the neutral axis whereas horizontal
tensile stresses will occur below the neutral axis.
6
Stresses in Flexible Pavement
Temperature stresses also exists in the pavements layer with the
distribution as maximum stresses in the top layer and reduces at
the bottom layers
7
Flexible Pavement Design Methods
AASHTO Design Method
Asphalt Institute Design Method
8
AASHTO Design Method
The AASHTO method for design of highway pavements is based
primarily on the results of the AASHTO road test that was
conducted in Ottawa, Illinois USA
Conducted different tests under various pavement layer
thicknesses and traffic conditions.
These data were analyzed thoroughly, and the results formed the
basis for the AASHTO method of pavement design.
9
AASHTO Design Method
AASHTO initially published an interim guide for the design of
pavement structures in 1961, which was revised in 1972. A further
revision was published in 1986.
Another edition was subsequently published 1993 which
in included the overlay design procedure.
Latest version released in 2010
10
Design Considerations
The factors considered in the AASHTO procedure for the design
of flexible pavement as presented in the 1993 guide are:
1. Pavement performance
2. Traffic
3. Roadbed soils (subgrade material)
4. Materials of construction
5. Environment
6. Drainage
7. Reliability
11
Pavement Performance
The primary factors considered under pavement performance are
the structural and functional performance of the pavement.
Structural performance is related to the physical condition of the
pavement such as the capability of the pavement to carry the
traffic load.
Factors which reduces the structural performance of the pavement
includes cracking, faulting, raveling, and so forth.
12
Pavement Performance
Functional performance is an indication of how effectively the
pavement serves the user. The main factor considered under
functional performance is riding comfort.
To quantify pavement performance, a concept known as the
serviceability performance was developed and is measured using
Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
The scale ranges from 0 to 5, where 0 is the lowest PSI and 5 is
the highest.
13
Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
14
Traffic Load
15
Traffic Load
16
Single, Tandem, Tridem Axles
17
Traffic Load
The Standard Axle loading is defined as an axle with dual tyres loaded to
80kN (8.2 tonne)(18000lb).
In the AASHTO design method, the traffic load is determined in terms of the
number of repetitions of an 18,000-lb (80 kilonewtons (kN)) single-axle load
applied to the pavement on two sets of dual tires.
This is usually referred to as the equivalent single-axle load (ESAL).
18
Traffic Load
19
Traffic Load
6
5.11
5
E S A L s per Vehicle
1.8
2
1.3 5
5
1
0.000 0.1
0 7 0
Car Delivery Truck Loaded 18- Loaded 40' Loaded 60'
Wheeler Bus Articulated
Bus
Notice that cars are insignificant
and thus usually ignored in
pavement design. 20
Traffic Load (Fourth Power Law)
4
load
relative damage factor
18,000 lb.
4
load(tons) relative damage
8.2 tons factor
21
Traffic Load (Fourth Power Law)
Consider two Axles A and B
A-Axle = 16.4 tons
Damage caused per pass by A-Axle = (16.4/8.2)4 = 16
It means A-Axle causes same amount of damage per pass
as caused by 16 passes of the standard 8.2 ton axle
22
Traffic Load (Fourth Power Law)
B-Axle = 4.1 tons
Damage caused per pass by A-Axle = (4.1/8.2)4 = 0.0625
It means B-Axle causes only 0.0625 times damage per pass
as caused by 1passes of the standard 8.2 ton axle.
In another words 16 (1/0.0625) passes of B-Axle causes
same amount of damage as caused by 1 pass of standard 8.2 ton
axle.
23
Traffic Load (Fourth Power Law)
The standard axle weights for a standing-
room-only loaded Metro articulated bus (60
ft. Flyer) are:
Axle Empty Full
Steering 13,000 lb. 17,000 lb.
Middle 15,000 lb. 20,000 lb.
Rear 9,000 lb. 14,000 lb.
Using the 4th power approximation, determine the
total equivalent damage caused by this bus in
terms of ESALs when it is empty. How about
when it is full?
24
Traffic Load (Fourth Power Law)
Empty
(13,000/18,000)4 = 0.272
(15,000/18,000)4 = 0.482
(9,000/18,000)4 = 0.063
• Total = 0.817 ESALs
Full ?
(17,000/18,000)4 = 0.795
(20,000/18,000)4 = 1.524
(14,000/18,000)4 = 0.366
• Total = 2.685 ESALs
Increase in total weight = 14,000 lb. (about 80 people) or
39%
Increase in ESALs is 1.868 (229%)
25
Traffic Load
26
Traffic Load
To determine the ESAL, the number of different types of vehicles
such as cars, buses, single-unit trucks, and multiple-unit trucks expected
to use the facility during its lifetime must be known.
The total ESAL applied on the highway during its design period can be
determined only after the design period and traffic growth factors are
known.
The design period is the number of years the pavement will effectively
continue to carry the traffic load without requiring an overlay. Flexible
highway pavements are usually designed for a 20-year period
27
Traffic Load
Since traffic volume does not remain constant over the design
period of the pavement, it is essential that the rate of growth be
determined and applied when calculating the total ESAL.
The growth rate ranges between 3-6% and in some cases up to
10%
The growth factors (Grn) for different growth rates and design
periods can be obtained from Equation
n = number of years
Grn
(1 r) n r = growth rate in
decimals
1
r
28
Traffic Load
29
Traffic Load
The portion of the total ESAL acting on the design lane (fd) is
used in the determination of pavement thickness.
Either lane of a two-lane highway can be considered as the design
lane whereas for multilane highways, the outside lane is
considered
The percentage in Table 6 .1 5 is based on total traffic, but the percentage in Table 6 .16
is based on the traffic in one direction . 30
Traffic Load
A general equation for the accumulated ESAL for each category
of axle load is obtained as
31
Traffic Load Example
32
Traffic Load
33
Traffic Load
34
Traffic Load Example
35
Traffic Load Example (Using Truck Factor)
A two-lane major rural (Principal) highway has an AADT of 4000
during the first year of traffic, 25 % trucks, 4% annual growth
rate, and 50% on the design lane. If the truck factors is as
shown in 0.38, compute the ESAL for a design period of 20 years.
ESALs = Pi × AADT × Grn × fDL × 365 × Tf
ESALs = 0.25× 4000 × 29.78 × 0.50 × 365 × 0.38
ESALs = 2065200
Pi = percentage of trucks Grn = Growth rate factor
fDL = Factor for design lane Tf = Truck Factor
36
Traffic Load Example
37
Traffic Load Example
38
39
