Grade 10 Chemistry
Units 1-3
Unit 1: Macroscopic properties
1.1. Mixtures
1.2. Pure Substances
1.3. Names and formulae of substances
1.4 Properties of Materials
Macroscopic properties
• Matter: has mass and occupies space
• States of matter: Solid (ice), liquid (water), gas (steam).
• Matter is made up of small particles (atoms and molecules)
of elements found on the periodic table
• The particles determine the properties and reactivity of
substances
1.1. Mixtures
• 2 kinds
• Homogeneous: mixture has the same composition
throughout (uniform) and all components are in the same
state. E.g. Oros
• Heterogeneous mixture: does not have the same
composition throughout (non-uniform). Components can be
distinguished. E.g. sand and water
1.2. Pure Substances
• Elements or compounds
• Made up of one type of particle
• Mixtures are not pure substances
1.3. Name and formulae of substances
• Elements are grouped as metals, metalloids (semi-metals),
and non-metals
Naming Compounds
• Elements on the left side of the periodic table usually come first.
NaCl is Sodium chloride
• Names of elements on the right side changes by adding –ide/ite.
Eg in carbon dioxide () oxygen becomes oxide
• Mono=1, di=2, tri=3. These show the number of the element.
Carbon monoxide has 1 oxygen, Carbon dioxide has two, sulfur
trioxide has 3
• Some substances have common names. Hydrogen oxide is water
• Polyatomic ions ( is the sulfate ion) have the same ration of
elements (law of constant composition)
Chemical formulae
• Take into account the different components of the molecule and the ratio they are
combined in (in water H2O the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1)
• The subscript (number at the bottom) refers to the element before it. In H 2O the 2
means 2 hydrogens
• The number at the top shows the chrge of the ion (the +/- shows whether it is positive
or negative)
• If there is more than one of the same polyatomic ion in a compound there will be a
bracket around the ion and the subscript outside the bracket refers to the number of
that ion. In Mg(NO3)2 there are 2 NO3 ions.
• The number in front of the compound refers to the total number of that compound.
There are two molecules in 2H2O
• The formula can represent the molecule like in H2O orit can be the empiracle formula
(the smallest ration of the components is shown like in an NaCl crystal)
• Positive ions are written before the negative ions
1.4. Properties of
materials
Electrical Conductance
• Conductors: generally metals. Connected to a power source
and conduct electricity well
• Mtalloids: Used in computers and other electronic
equipment. Metalloids like silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge)
are poor conductors. If there temperature is raised their
conducting ability increases.
• Insulators: Cover conductors. Poor conducting ability.
Protect people from electric shock and short circuits.
Thermal conductance
• Thermal conductors: Copper and aluminium used in pots
• Thermal insulators: Plastic handles on pots. Polystyrine
cups
Magnetic and non-magnetic materials
• Ferromagnetic materials are good magnetic materials.
• Iron, nickle and cobalt are good magnetic elements.
• Zinc, aluminium and copper are metals that are poorly
magnetic
• Soft magnetic materials: easily magnetised but lose their
magnetism easily. Used as temporary magnets like fridge
magnets, scrap yards, doorbells and telephones.
• Hard magnets: take long to magetise but retain magnetism
for a long time. Used as permanent magnets in car
generators and compasses.
Unit 2: States of matter and kinetic
molecular theory.
• 2.1. States of matter
• 2.2. Kinetic molecular theory
2.1. States/ phases of matter.
Sold Liquid Gas
• Particle vibrate in a fixed position • Particles move randomly but in a • Particles move quickly and randomly
restricted fashion.
• Extremely small spaces between • Huge spaces between particles
molecules. • Spaces between particles smaller
• Weak or negligible forces between
than that of a gas (larger than in a
• Very strong forces between particles
sold)
particles. • Diffusion occurs and is faster than in
• Forces between molecules are
• liquids
Diffusion does not occur in this weaker than those in solid.
state • More intense collisions than in
• Diffusion occurs liquids
• Cannot be compressed and retains
shape • Collisions between particles • Is compressible
• Fills shape of base of container. • Exerts pressure in all directions
• Particles arranged in crystal lattice
• Exerts pressure in all directions • Has specific condensation points
• Has specific melting point under
standard conditions • Has specific boiling and freezing under standard conditions.
point under specific conditions
Diffusion: the movement of particles of a substance in between the particles of a second
substance from an area of low concentration to an area of a low concentration.
Phase change
• During a phase change:
1. Physical properties and potential energy of the substance
change
2. Particle size and shape and the number of particles stays
the same.
• Forces between particles weaken when particles become
less organized (solid to liquid to gas)
• Forces between particles strengthen when particles
become more organised (gas to liquid to solid)
• Energy is needed to overcome forces
Phase Change Graph
• A- Solid particles absorb energy without melting. Temperature
increases. Average inetic energy of the particles increases.
• B- Melting. Temperature remains the same until melting is finished.
Movement of particles is the same. Potential energy increases.
• C- Liquid absorbs energy. Temperature increases. Average kinetic
energy of the particles increases
• D- Boiling. Temperature remains constant until substance completely
becomes a vapour. Movement of the particles remains constant.
Potential energy increases
• E- Vapour absorbs energy. Temperature increases Average kinetic
energy of the particles increases.
• Note: You can determine what state a substance is in if you have the
boiling and melting points. More energy= More kinetic energy of the
particles.
2.2. Kinetic Molecular Theory
• Used to explain the behaviour of particles in all three
states:
1. All matter is made up of tiny particles
2. Particles are in constant motion
3. There are empty spaces between particles
4. Forces of attraction and repulsion exist between the
particles
5. The particles are always colliding with each other and the
walls of the container
6. The individual kinetic energy of each particle will differ
but the average kinetic energy is constant at a constant
temperature
Unit 3: The Atom; The basic building
block of all matter.
3.1. The atomic model
• 5th century BC Greek Philosopher, Democritus, Believed everything was
made of small particles called “atomos”.
• We cannot see atoms so the models we use are to show a hypothesis on
what we believe the atom looks like. They change as more experiments are
done
• John Dalton (1803). Billard ball model:
1. All elements are made up of small of small, invisible particles called atoms
2. All atoms of an elements are identical
3. Atoms of different elements are different
4. Bonds form when elements combine in a set ratio
5. Atoms can be combined, separated, or rearranged during chemical
reactions
J.J. Thomson (1897), “plum and pudding
model”
1. Atom is a positively charged ball
2. Negative particles (electrons) are embedded in it like
plums in a plum pudding
Ernest Rutherford (1911):
• Shot helium nuclei (4 2He) AKA an alpha particle (from
radioactive material) at a thin piece of gold foil.
Some a particles where deflected
Some were reflected back to the source
Some went straight through
1. There is a dense positive nucleus
2. Surrounded by a large space of negative charge
3. Positive particles are protons, negative particles are
electrons
James Chadwick (1932):
• Experimented to look at the mass of the atom
1. The mass of protons and electrons did not give the total
mass of the atom
2. Discovered neutral particle (neutrons)
Niels Bohr (1913), Planetary model:
1. Elecrons moved in specific energy levels/ orbitals (like
planets around the sun)
2. Electrons near the nucleus have less energy
3. Electrons further away had greater energy
• All these experiments led to the modern model of the atom:
mechanical wave model.
3.2. Atomic structure
• The atom is made up of:
A nucleus (made up of positive protons and neutral neutons)
A space around the nucleus where energy levels surround the nucleus
containing electrons.
• Neutral atom: number of protons = number of electrons
• Number of neutrons= mass number (A) – atomic number (Z)
• Mass of a proton = mass of a neutron = 1u
• Mass of electron = 1/1840 u (negligible)
• Electrons give the atom volume
• If an golf ball was placed in a stadium the size of the golf ball would represent
the size of the nucleus and the stadium would be the atom
• Atomic mass increase as you move right and down the periodic table
Relative atomic mass
• To determine the mass of an atom, the carbon 12 atom is
chosen as reference (mass= 12amu) the hydrogen atoms
mass would be 1/12 of this = 1
• Relative atomic mass is give symbol A
• Has no units, is just a number
• Can be read off the periodic table
AZE notation
Ions
• Small charged particle
• Formed when a neutral atoms gains an electron (becoming
negatively charged anion) or loses one (becoming
positively charged, called a cation)
• The number of protons and neutrons always stays the same
• E.g. O2- or Na1+
Isotopes
• Some atoms of the same elements are not the same (e.g. Chlorine
can have a mass number of 35 or 37)
• This means both have 17 protons but the number of neutrons is
different
• Isotopes have the same number of protons (atomic number) but
different number of neutrons (mass number)
Electron Configuration
• Electrons always have the same mass and charge but
electron energy can change
• Niels Bohr proposed that electrons that electrons existed in
different different energy states around the nucleus called
energy states
• In each energy level the electrons move around the nucleus
in a space known as orbitals
• There are s, p, d and f orbitals
• To illustrate the electron configuration we use an Aufbau
diagram
• Hund’s Rule: There is no pairing in the p, d and f orbitals
before each orbital in that group has at least one electron
• Valence are the electrons in the outermost orbital
• The core electrons are in the innermost orbitals
• The number of the outermost energy levels containing
Unit 4: The
Periodic Table
4.1. Composition
• Made by Dmitri Mendeleev who predicted the reactivity of
elements based on where they were placed in the periodic
table
• Periodic Law: If elements are placed in order of increasing
atomic mass similarities of physical and chemical
properties are periodically repeated
• Vertical columns are called groups
• Horizontal rows are called periods
4.2. information: 4.2.1. General
information
• Elements are arranged in increasing atomic number (Z)
• Z shows the position of the element on the Table
• Elements from group 3 to 12 are transition metals
• Bromine and Mercury are liquid at room temp (25 degrees)
• Francium will be a liquid at 27 degrees
• Metals are usually solids and non-metals are usually gasses
• Period one only has H and He
• Diatomic elements: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2.
4.2.2. Zigzag line
• Metals are to the left of it and non-metals to the right
• Elements adjacent to it are metalloids
4.2.3. Valence electrons
• Number of valence electrons of an element correspond to
its group
• Elements in the same group have similar valence electron
structure
4.2.4. Reactivity
• Reactivity is how easily an element reacts
• Metals: Increases from top to bottom in a group and
decreases left to right in a period
• Non-metals: increases left to right of a period and from
bottom to top of a group
4.2.5. Atomic mass and number
• A and Z are their symbols
• Mass is determined by the amount of protons and neutrons
each with a mass of 1u
• Increase from left to righjt in a period and top to bottom in
a group
4.2.6. Trends in the periodic table
(periodicity)
• Density: density increases as forces between atoms
become stronger and pulled closer together. Density
decreases as you move from solid to gas state
• Atomic mass increases from top to bottom of the group.
• Increasing atomic mass= stronger intermolecular forces
• Therefore, density increases and then decreases as you
move from left to right and increases down a group
Metals and their boiling and melting
points
• Metals melting points depends on the number of delocalized
electrons, size of atoms, density of solid crystal structure
• Metal boiling points depend on the number of delocalized electrons,
size of atoms
• Boiling and melting points increase from left to right and decrease
from top to bottom
Non-metals
• Melting and boiling points depend on the size of the atoms
and diatomic molecules and the strength of the inter- and
intra molecular forces
• Melting and boiling points increase from top to bottom and
decrease from left to right
4.2.7. Atomic radius
• Decreases from left to right; number of protons increase
and attractive forces between the protons and electrons,
electrons move closer to the nucleus.
• Increases from top to bottom; as you move down the
amount of energy levels increases and each one takes up
more volume
4.2.8. Ionization energy
• Energy needed per mol to remove an electron fromm an atom
in a gas phase
• Cation is formed
• The greater the ionization energy the more difficult it is to
remove from a neutral atom
• More energy is needed to remove a second electron
• Observations: increase from left to right and top to bottom,
metals Have a lower ionization energy than non-metals, group
18 elements have a high I.E. and are usually unreactive
What influences I.E.?
1. Position on periodic table: The greater the atomic number
the more protons there are and the greater the attractive
forces. I.E will increase
2. Valence electrons: I.E is low with fewer valence electrons
and when there are unpaired electrons
3. Atomic radius: The further the valence electrons from the
nucleus the easier it is to remove them. I.E. increases
when atomic radius decreases
4.2.9. Electron affinity
• Tendency for an atom to accept and electron
• Becomes an anion
• Energy is released during the process
• Increases from left to right and decreases from top to
bottom
4.2.10. Electronegativity
• Tendency of an atoms in a molecule to attract bonding
electrons
• Shown according to the Pauling scale on periodic table.
(scale takes into consideration electron affinity, ionization
energy, atomic radius etc.)
• Fluorine is the most electronegative element with a Pauling
scale of 4
• Increases from left to right and decreases from top to
bottom
Unit 5: Chemical bonds
• Three types.
1. Covalent
2. Ionic
3. metallic
5.1. Covalent bonding
• Sharing of electron pairs
between atoms (single,
double triple bonds)
• Between non-metals
• Covalent network
structure consists of giant
repeating lattices of
covalently bonded atoms
(diamonds, graphite)
5.2. Ionic bonding
• Involves the electrostatic
attraction between
oppositely charged ions
• Happens when there is a
transfer of electrons
between atoms resulting
in the formation of anions
and cations
• Usually between metals
and non-metals
• Can form ionic lattices
(NaCl, potassium
permanganate crystals)
5.3. Metallic bonds
• The electrostatic attractive
force between conduction
electrons (in the form of an
electron cloud of delocalized
electrons) and positively
charged metal ions
• Sharing of free electrons
among a structure of
positively charged ions
evenly spaced
• Positive ions are in a sea of
delocalized electrons
• Can form metal crystals
Lewis structure
• A way of Representing elements by showing their valence
electrons represented as dots or crosses
1. Determine the total number of valence electrons in the
atom.
2. Write the symbol of the elements and fill in the number of
valence electrons around it (In a noble gas there will be 8,
4 pairs around the elements)
3. For elements without 8 valence electrons remember to fill
each orbital with one electron before pairing them
Unit 6: Matter is composed of particles
Atoms and compounds
• Molecules are made due to covalent bonds
• Ionic substances are made by ionic bonds
• Atoms are small particles from which substances are made
• Only substances found in atomic form are noble gases at
ambient/standard conditions
• Compound is a group of 2 or more atoms attracted to each
other by relatively strong forces or bonds (combined in
definite proportions)
• Note: ionic substances and molecules are both compounds
because they have chemical bonds
6.2. Different types of formulae
• Molecular formula: a
chemical formula that
gives the total number of
atoms of each element in
each molecule of a
substance.
• Empirical formula:
simplest formula for a
compound which is
defined as the ratio of
subscripts of the smallest
possible whole number of
the elements present in
the formula
Structural formula
• Shows arrangement of atoms and bonds
• E.g. H-Cl
6.3. Models of molecule
• Ball-and-stick model
• Space-filling model
• Diagram
• Lewis stucture
