CL – CONCEPTS:
TRAINING ON HOW TO
WRITE A PROJECT WORK
MODULE 3
Outline
• Introduction
• Content of Chapter Four
• Examples
INTRODUCTION
• Chapter Four of your research work deals about presentation of
results.
• This is the stage of your research work where data gotten from the
study are being translated, presented or interpreted to the
understanding of others, or give meaning to it.
• Lets take a look at the data below:
Collection of Data: Heights
of Under Five Years of Age
85cm, 84cm, 106cm, 107, 105cm, 87cm, 90cm, 89cm, 107cm,
104cm, 105cm, 106cm, 110cm, 85cm, 75cm, 108cm, 109m,
109cm, 119cm, 115cm, 89cm, 84cm, 106cm, 100cm, 85cm,
84cm, 94cm, 111cm, 106cm, 107cm, 100cm, 102cm, 104cm,
115cm, 100cm, 92cm, 168cm, 95cm, 104cm, 103cm, 100cm,
109cm, 112cm, 97cm, 74cm, 76cm, 77cm, 80cm, 72cm, 94cm,
95cm, 80cm, 88cm, 88cm, 85cm, 120cm
Organization and
Summarization of Data
• The above data is meaningless unless collated and analysed
• Statistics apps enable researchers to express data in meaningful forms
• You can use apps like Excel, SPSS, SAS, Stata, Epi-info, Minitab, Scilab,
graphpad Prism, WINPEPI, R–programming, Python programme to
collated and analyse data.
Descriptive Statistics
• Data can be summarized and presented in 3 forms:
o Tabular forms
o Diagrammatical forms
o Numerical forms (measurement of location and dispersion)
• Presentation of data in either forms above is know as
descriptive statistics
• It simplifies and draw out the important features of the data
Tables
• A Table is series of rows and columns that enables a scholar display
vast amount of data for quick visualization and discovering of
underlying trend needed for decision making.
• They are usually featured in the result section of a research paper.
TABLES (1)
• They should be numbered e.g. Table 1, Table 2 etc.
• A title must be given to each table.
• The title should capture the following items:
o What the data represents
o The sources of the data
o The time it was collected
TABLES (2)
• The columns or rows should have headings and should be
clear and concise
• No table should be too long or large.
• It can be presented vertical or horizontally; although vertical
presentation is easier to scan the data from top to bottom
than from left to right.
• Footnotes may be given, providing further explanation or
additional information
Tables(3)
Two types:
• Frequency distribution table
• Cumulative frequencies table
Tables (4)
E.g. of a Frequency Distribution Table
Table 1. Distribution of Students in College of Health Sciences at
DELSU Year 2022
Levels Frequency (%)
100L 500 (35.7)
200L 400 (28.6)
300L 300 (21.4)
400l 200 (14.3)
Total 1400 (100.0)
Tables (5)
E.g. of a Cumulative Frequency Table
Table 2: Age Distribution of 100l Nursing Students at DELSU Year 2022
Age Group Frequency(%) CF(CF%)
15-19 65 (65.0) 65 (65.0)
20-24 23 (23.0) 88 (88.0)
25-29 7 (7.0) 95 (95.0)
30-34 5 (5.0) 100 (100.0)
Total 100 (100.0)
DIAGRAMMATIC/GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
OF DATA
• This can be in any of the following:
o Pictogram
o Bar chart
o Pie chart
o Histogram
o Frequency polygon
o Cumulative frequency polygon (Ogive)
o Spot map
o Box-and-whisker plot (Box plot)
o Stem and leaf displays
o Dot diagram
o Special line diagram
Bar Charts
•Bar charts are suitable for categorical variables.
• The variables are represented as length of bars.
•The length of the bar is proportional to the magnitude to
be represented.
•The common types of bar charts are:
oSimple bar chart
oMultiple (Compound) bar chart
oComponent bar chart
Simple Bar Chart
Fig 1 DELSU; Sex Ratio 2019
70
60
Female per 100 males
50
40
30
20
10
0
15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34
Age in Years
Simple Bar Chart
Multiple (Compound) Bar Chart
Fig 3: POPULATION OF VANCOUVER PROVINCE 2019
POPULATION IN MILLIONS 45
40
35
30
25
TOTAL
YOUTH
20
15
10
0
NORTH SOUTH WEST EAST CENTRAL
REGION
Component bar chart
Fig 4: POPULATION OF VANCOUVER 2019
POPULATION IN MILLIONS 70
60
50
40
YOUTH
TOTAL
30
20
10
0
NORTH SOUTH WEST EAST CENTRAL
REGION
Pie Chart
•It is use for representing
categorical variables.
•The area of the circle
represent a population; and
subdividing the circle into
segments
•It is vital to indicate the
percentages in the segments;
for it makes it easy to
compare the areas of
segments
Histogram
• A histogram is a special kind of bar diagram suitable for
continuous variables.
• The horizontal axis represents class boundaries, and the
vertical axis represents the frequency.
Histogram
Fig 6: Frequency Distribution of Diastolic Blood Pressure of
Students of Faculty of Medical Sciences DELSU 2019
50
45
40
Frequency
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
69-73 74-78 79-83 84-88 89-93 94-98
DBP
Frequency Polygon
• A frequency polygon is a variation of histogram.
• The mid-points of the tops of the corresponding
rectangles in a histogram are joined by straight lines.
• The advantages of frequency polygon over histogram
is that several frequency polygon can be plotted on
one graph.
Frequency Polygon
Fig 7: Frequency Distribution of Diastolic Blood Pressure of
FMS DELSU students 2019
50
45
40
35
Frequency
30
25
20
15
10
0
71 76 81 86 91 96
DBP
Box-and-whisker Plot
• The box-and-whisker plot (simply, called, a box plot) is
constructed by subdividing data set into quartiles.
• Use for continuous data.
• It gives vital information of a set of data: the extent of
spread, average, and evenness of the data.
Box-and-whisker Plot
Q3(75%) value
Maximum
Q1(50%)
Q (25%)
2
Minimum value
Fig.10 Box plots
25
E.g. 1: Effect of FE of Serum
Bilirubin, Albumin and TP
E.g. 2:
E.g. 3
E.g. 4
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