GENERAL PHYSICS

Length and
time
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
LENGTH MEASUREMENT
- Ruler

- Vernier caliper
LENGTH MEASUREMENT
- Micrometer screw gauge
VOLUME MEASUREMENT
- Measuring cylinder

36.5 cm3
TIME MEASUREMENT
- Analogue watch
Digital stop watch
OBTAINING AVERAGES
- Rather than measuring the thickness of a single sheet of paper, it
is more accurate to measure the thickness of 1000 sheets of paper
and calculate the average:

- Rather than to calculate the time taken for a single pendulum

swing, it is more accurate to measure the time taken from 100
swings and average the results:
LENGTH AND TIME
Basic Quantity

Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvins K
Current Amperes A
SCALARS AND VECTORS

1. A scalar quantity – has only magnitude but does not

have direction.
e.g. mass, distance, time, speed, work, power.

2. A vector quantity – has both magnitude and

direction.
e.g. weight, displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force.
VECTORS AND VECTOR
DIAGRAMS

Step 1: Select an appropriate scale E.g. 1 cm : 2 N.

Step 2: Draw a parallelogram of vectors to scale.
Step 3: Measure the diagonal to find R.
Step 4: Use the protractor to measure angle θ
Vectors and scalars
WHAT IS THE RESULTANT VECTOR???
Scale diagrams
GENERAL PHYSICS
Motion
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Speed and velocity
- Speed is the distance travelled per unit time

- Velocity is the distance travelled in a specified direction per unit

time

Speed = 1000m / 2000s =

0.5m/s
Velocity = 0 / 2000 = 0 m/s
Acceleration
-Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

Measured in m/s²

-Positive acceleration is when an object increases velocity over time

- Negative acceleration is when an object decreases velocity over

time (deceleration)
 Distance –
time graph
Graph of Distance vs
Time
1. The distance-time
graph of a moving
object along a straight
road is used to find its
speed.

2. The gradient of the

graph gives the speed
of the object.
Speed – time
graphs
The speed-time graph of a
moving object along a
straight road is used to find:

(a) Acceleration (Using the

gradient of graph)

(b) Distance travelled (Using

the area under the graph)
(Non-Uniform Acceleration)

Notice that the gradient of the

graph becomes steeper.

The gradient of triangle 2 is

larger than the gradient of
triangle 1.
(Gradient gets more positive).

The speed is increasing with

increasing acceleration
(increasing rate).
Interpret Other Speed-Time Graphs
(Non-Uniform Acceleration)
Notice that the gradient of the
graph becomes less steep.
The gradient of triangle 2 is
smaller than the gradient of
triangle 1.
(Gradient gets less and less
positive).
The speed is increasing with
decreasing acceleration
(decreasing rate).
 Effect of Air Resistance
1. In real life, a falling object will
Falling encounter air resistance on Earth

objects 2. Air resistance acts against the motion

of the object increasingly to reduce its
Acceleration Due to Free- downward acceleration (NOT SPEED) to
zero.
Fall 3. When the air resistance increases till
Near the surface of the earth, it is equal to the weight of a falling
the acceleration of free fall for object, the acceleration of the object is
an object is constant zero.
It is approximately 10 m/s².
When an object drops from the 4. With zero acceleration, the object will
top of a building, its speed will continue falling downward at a constant
increase from 0 m/s uniformly
at a rate of 10 m/s every
velocity.
second.
5. The constant velocity of the object is
known as “terminal velocity”.
GENERAL PHYSICS
Mass and
weight
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Mas
s
- The amount of matter that makes up an object
- Measured in kilograms (Kg)
- Measured using a Balance
- Does not change in size relative to the objects location in space
- All masses have inertia (resistance to change in motion)
- The larger the mass, the larger the inertia
Weight
- Force on a mass due to gravity
- Measured in newtons (N)

-It is measured using a Force metre / Spring Balance

-Changes in size/ value depending on location of the object in
space.
GENERAL PHYSICS
Density
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Density formula
Density measurement – Liquid
- Put measuring cylinder on weighing scale
and reset to zero
- Pour liquid into measuring cylinder and
measure volume
- Measure mass of liquid by reading off the
Balance
- Calculate density via mass / volume ??? KG
Density measurement –
regular solid
- Measure dimensions of solid
(height/width/length)

height
- Calculate volume of solid (height X width
X length)
Wid
th n gth
- Measure mass of solid with - Density = le
mass / volume
??? KG
Density measurement –
Irregular solid
- Measure mass of solid via a balance
- Add water into measuring cylinder and measure
initial volume . Submerge solid into the water
- Measure the final volume of water in the cylinder
- Volume of solid = final volume – initial volume
- Density = mass / volume
??? KG
Final
volume
Initial
volume
Flotation / buoyancy
- Object will float if it is less dense than the liquid it is placed in
- Object will sink if it is more dense than the liquid it is placed in
GENERAL PHYSICS
Forces
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
What are forces?
- A force is a push or pull that causes a change in speed, direction, or
shape of an object
 Effects of forces on a spring
- When a load is hung off a spring, it causes a downward force on
the spring
- The amount of extension will depend on the amount of force
- EXPERIMENT:
1. Measure original position of spring without any mass (L0)
2. Add 100g mass and measure the position of spring again (L1)
3. Calculate extension I.e. change in length L1 – L0
4. Then add another 100g mass (total=200g) and measure new
length (L2)
5. calculate extension L2 – L0
6. Repeat the process until a total of 600g mass is added
Effects of forces on a spring
Mass (kg) Force (N) Length (cm) Extension
0 0 10 0
100 1000 20 10
200 2000 31 11
300 3000 41 10
400 4000 52 11
500 5000 60 8
600 6000 60 0
Extension load graph
Hooke’s law: Extension directly
proportional to force applied until the
limit of proportionality reached
F = kx
- Further force causes non-proportional
extension, but original shape is still
restored after removal of force
- After elastic limit, the original shape
of the spring is not restored even after
the removal of force
- If force applied is too great, the
spring may break
Force  Acceleration
- A net force on an object will cause
acceleration
F = ma
- Forces are vector quantities, and
therefore act in a specific direction.
-The resultant force is the overall force
when the size and direction of all forces
acting are taken into account
- Forces in the same direction are added
- Forces in opposite directions are
subtracted
Centripetal force
- Centripetal force is the force that causes an
object to move in a circle
- The force always acts at a right angle to the
direction of movement of object
- Force constantly changes the direction of
the object without changing the speed
- Since velocity is a vector quantity, the
velocity is changing, and therefore the object
is accelerating
- Centripetal force increases if:
1. The mass of the object increases
2. The speed of the object increases
3. The radius of the circle decreases
Friction and air resistance
- Friction is a force between two surfaces which impedes motion and
results in heating
- It is the resistance that one object encounters when moving over another
object
- Air resistance is a form of friction

- Air molecules will collide against free falling objects in the air, creating an
upwards force which opposes the downward force of gravity
Moments (turning effect)
- The moment of a force about a pivot is equal to force multiplied by the
perpendicular distance from the pivot

- When the clockwise moment > anticlockwise moment, the resultant moment
= clockwise
- When the anticlockwise moment > clockwise moment, the resultant moment
= anticlockwise
- An object is in equilibrium if there is no resultant moment i.e. clockwise
moment = anticlockwise moment
Examples
Centre of mass
- Centre of mass is the point on an object where
the weight of the object appears to act
- The center of mass of a plane lamina can be
determined with a simple experiment
1. Push pin through point anywhere on edge of
lamina
2. Allow lamina to swing and eventually hang
still
3. Mark a vertical line downwards
4. Take out pin and push through a second point
5. Again, let the lamina settle and mark a
second vertical line
6. The point of intersection between two lines =
center of mass
Stability
- The stability of an object is determined by its center of mass
- An object is stable if its weight (the force acting on center of mass)
is inside the base of the object
- An object will tip over if the weight falls outside the base of the
object
GENERAL PHYSICS
Momentum
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Momentum and impulse
- Moment is mass in motion, and any moving object will have momentum
Momentum = mass x velocity
p = mv
- A change moment is impulse.
- Impulse = Change in Momentum
Ft = mv-mu
- Momentum is always conserved
- Consider a collision between object 1 and object 2
- Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
GENERAL PHYSICS
Energy, work and
power
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Energy
- Energy is always conserved
- Energy is never created or destroyed, it is
only transferred or transformed from one
form to another

EXAMPLES
1. Light bulb: Electrical energy  Heat +
light
2. Water fall: Gravitational  Kinetic
3. Battery: Chemical  Electrical
Kinetic and gravitational
potential energy
- Kinetic energy
k.e =
-Gravitational potential energy
g.p.e = mgh
Energy resources
Fuels
chemical energy Heat energy Kinetic energy Electrical
energy
Waves/tides/HEP
Gravitational Potential Energy Kinetic energy Electrical energy
Geothermal
Heat Energy Kinetic energy Electrical energy
Solar
Light energy Electrical energy
GENERAL PHYSICS
Energy, work and
power
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Energ
y
- Energy is always
conserved
- It is never created or
destroyed
- Rather, energy is
transferred or
transformed from one
form to another.
Conservation of energy
- In a light bulb, electrical energy is transformed into heat energy
and light energy
- In a water fall, gravitational energy is transformed into kinetic
energy
- In a battery, chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy
Kinetic
energy
- Energy of a moving
object

Answer = C
Gravitational
potential
energy

Answer = A
Energy
resourc
es
GENERAL PHYSICS
Pressure
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Pressure
- Pressure is the force exerted per unit area
Mercury
baromet
er - Pressure beneath liquid
surface (at base of mercury
column) can be calculated
THERMAL PHYSICS
Simple kinetic
molecular model
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
States of matter
- Matter is any substance that occupies physical space.
- The kinetic theory of matter sates that matter is made of tiny
particles in constant motion
States of
matter
Temperature
- Temperature is the average kinetic energy of particles within a
substance
- Heating a substance causes particles to move quicker, therefore
increasing their kinetic energies, and hence increasing the
temperature
- Heating can change the state of matter of a substance:
Brownian motion
- One day, a scientist was observing a pollen grain suspended in water.
- He realized that the pollen grain was actually moving in random motion
- Brownian motion is the random movement of particles in a fluid due to
bombardment of molecules of the fluid itself
Pressure of a gas
- Pressure of a gas is defined as a change of momentum of particles
striking the walls of the container, exerting force
Pressure of a gas
-Higher temperature (at constant volume)  Stronger collisions against
container wall  Exerts more force on container wall  Increases pressure

- Lower volume (at constant temperature)  Stronger & more frequent

collisions against container wall  Exerts more force on container wall 
Increases pressure
Boyle’s law states that for a fixed mass of gas at
a constant temperature, the volume is inversely
proportional to the applied pressure
 Evaporatio
n
- Evaporation is the change from liquid to
gas below the boiling point
- Not all particles in a liquid have the same
kinetic energy
- Some particles may be moving quicker
(higher energy), and some may be moving
slower (lower energy)
- Remember: the AVERAGE kinetic energy =
temperature
- Particles with a large amount of kinetic
energy may overcome attractive forces and
escape the surface of the liquid as a gas
- Since most energetic particles escape, it
will lower the temperature (average kinetic
energy) of the liquid
- Factors that cause increased evaporation
1. Higher temperature
2. Larger surface area
THERMAL PHYSICS
Thermal properties
& temperature
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Thermal expansion
- Solids, liquids, and gases expand when heating
- This is because particles gain more kinetic energy when heated,
and therefore gain more separation from neighboring particles
- The extent of expansion varies:
1. Solids expand the least
2. Liquids expand more than solids
3. Gases expand more than liquids
Thermal expansion of solids
- Railway tracks have a small gap to account for thermal expansion
- If there were no gaps, the expansion would cause misalignment problems

The rails in the above image are the

result of the thermal expansion and These gaps give room for expansion during
lack of gap between the adjacent rails. hot weather
Thermal expansion of a liquid
- Thermal expansion of liquids are used in liquid-in-glass
thermometers
- When thermometer placed in hot liquid, the alcohol or mercury
expands
- This forces the liquid to move up the narrow tube
Thermal expansion of a gas
- When temperature of a gas is increased, particles gain more
kinetic energy
- This means the gas will take up more space (volume) if allowed
Measurement of temperature
1. Physical property that
varies with temperature
-Thermal expansion
-Electrical resistance
-Potential difference

2. Two fixed points

3. Scale
Measurement of temperature: Fixed
points
- To define a temperature scale, two reference temperatures called
fixed points must be used
- These are temperatures at which certain particular physical
properties manifest themselves i.e. freezing/boiling
- Celsius scale is defined by freezing point of water (0) and boiling
point of water (100)
 Types of thermometers
Liquid-in-glass thermometers Thermocouple

- Liquid expansion
- Voltage differences
- Convenient to carry
- Large range and accuracy
- Limited range of temperatures 0-100
- Instant temperature readings
- Delayed temperature reading
THE THERMOCOUPLE
Advantages:
(a) Can withstand high temperature with
suitable metals.
(b) Large temperature range. Can
measure very low or very high
temperatures.
(c) Junctions used are sharp and pointed
and therefore can be used to measure
temperature accurately at a point.
(d) Rapid response to temperature
change.
Thermal definitions
Internal energy
• Energy contained within the system
• If an object is heated, since the particles gain more kinetic energy, the internal
energy is increased

Thermal capacity
• Amount of energy required to change the temperature of an object by one unit (1°C)
• Thermal capacity is dependent on the material and mass of the object

Specific heat capacity

• Amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of an object per unit mass
• In other words, the energy required to raise the temperature of 1Kg of that material
by 1°C
Specific heat capacity of water

We need:
- Mass of substance (m)
- Temperature change of substance
(ΔT)
- Energy used to cause this
temperature change (E)
 Specific heat capacity of
water
- 0.50 kg water is used into a container
with insulation
- A thermometer is used to measure the
temperature of the water
- An electrical heater with known power
(50 W) is placed in the water
- Initial temperature reading is taken
- The heater is switched on and a timer is
started simultaneously
- Timer is stopped when the temperature
rises by 10°C
Specific heat capacity of
water
Energy supplied by heater (E) = power X time = 50W X 420s = 21 000J
Mass of water (m) = 0.50 kg
Change in temperature (ΔT) = 10°C

C = 4200 J/(Kg°C)

In reality a lot of energy from the heater would not be transferred 100% to the
water, so the value would be a bit different from 4200.
The concept of melting
- Solid  Liquid
- As solid is heated, temperature
rises until MP is met
- Once MP reached, solid will
transition into a liquid
- During transition phase,
temperature is constant
- Once solid has fully melted,
temperature of liquid rises again
- Latent heat of fusion is the
energy required to melt a solid at
melting point
Concept of boiling
- Liquid  Gas
- As liquid heated, temperature of liquid
rises until BP is met
- Once BP reached, temperature stays
constant as liquid becomes a gas
- Once liquid has fully boiled into gas,
temperature of the gas begins to rise
- Latent heat of vaporization is the
energy required to vapourize a liquid at
boiling point
Boiling vs evaporation
- Boiling and evaporation is a change in state from liquid  Solid
- Differences:
- Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature
- Evaporation can occur at all temperatures, including below the
boiling point
- Evaporation decreases the temperature of the remaining liquid.
- During boiling the temperature remains constant.
THERMAL PHYSICS
Thermal processes
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Conduction –Good conductors
- Conduction is the process by which heat or electricity is directly transmitted through the
material of a substance
- Occurs via molecular vibrations (transfer of kinetic energy through the structure)
- Metals are good conductors because of their structures:

- When one end of metal is heated, particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate quicker
- This causes neighboring particles to vibrate quicker and results in a domino effect across the structure
- Through the transfer of kinetic energy in the form of vibrations, heat is transferred from one end to the other
- Free electrons are highly mobile and rapidly quickens the transmission of energy
Metal conduction experiment
- Demonstration of copper being a
good conductor
- As copper bar is heated, the
drawing pins will fall off one (from
the one closest to the heat)
- This is because the metal conducts
heat from the hot end to the cold
end
- Heat melts the wax and therefore
drops the pins
Conduction - Poor conductors
- Insulators are very poor conductors such as rubber
- Absence of free electrons makes the passage of vibrations/kinetic
energy very difficult
- Water is a poor conductor

- As the water at the top of boiling tube is

heated, it eventually boils
- However, the ice at the bottom does not melt
- Heat therefore does not reach the bottom of
the tube
Convection
- Convection is a method of heat transfer
strictly in liquids and gases
1. Molecules/ atoms must be free to move.

2. Set-up of a convection current: The fluid

closer to the heat source expands, and its
density decreases and the surrounding
denser fluid displaces it.

3. Application: Air conditioners are placed

near the ceiling because cold air, being
denser, will sink to displace the warm air in
the room.
Radiation
1. Factors affecting radiation:
(a) Colour
(b) Roughness
(c) Area exposed to radiation
2. Good radiator/ good absorber of radiation: black, dull surface,
with a huge amount of surface area exposed.
3. Poor radiator/ poor absorber of radiation: bright, shiny and
polished surface
Radiation – Emission
experiment
- Infra-red radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum , and is emitted by any hot object
- Infra-red can be emitted, absorbed, or reflected
- Different types of surfaces can affect the emission and absorption of infra-red radiation

Set-up & procedure

•A metal cube with is painted with 4 different types of
surfaces: matt black, shiny black, white and silver
•The cube is filled with boiling water
•A heat detector is placed at a constant distance away
from the cube i.e. 50cm
•The cube is rotated so that each side faces the heat
detector in turn, and the readings are noted

Results (in order of emission levels)

•Matt black (highest) -> Shiny black -> White -> Silver
(lowest)
Radiation – Absorption
experiment
Set-up & procedure
•A radiant heater is placed in the middle of two plates at
equal distance away from the heater
•One plate is matt black and the other is silver
•A thermometer is placed on each plate and initial reads
of the thermometers are recorded
•The heater is switched on and the temperatures of each
of the plates are measured in equal intervals

Results:
•The temperature of the matt black plate will increase
quicker than the silver
•Matt black surfaces are therefore better absorbers of
radiation
WAVES, LIGHT,
SOUND
Wave properties
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Wav
es
- Waves transfer energy from one place to another without the
transfer of particles themselves in the medium
- Particles vibrate in fixed positions
Types of waves
- Longitudinal waves
- Particles vibrate parallel to
direction of wave
- Compressions (particles closest
together) and rarefactions (particles
furthest apart)
- sound is longitudinal

- Transverse waves
- Particles vibrate perpendicular to
wave direction
- Peaks (particles highest from rest
position) and troughs (particles
lowest from rest position)
 Important
definitions
Wavelength is the distance between adjacent
particles that are at the same point in their
vibration
In a transverse wave, it is the distance between
two adjacent peaks or troughs
In a longitudinal wave, it is the distance between
two adjacent compressions or rarefactions
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of
particles from rest position
In transverse waves, it is the distance between
the rest position to the peak
Velocity of the wave is the distance traveled per
second, and is measured in m/s
Frequency of the wave is the number of complete
waves passing a point per second, and is measured
in hertz (Hz)
Wavefronts are the locations of all particles of the
medium in the same state of vibration. It is
perpendicular to wave direction. The distance
between one wavefront to the next is the
wavelength
Reflection, refraction and
diffraction
REFLECTION
- When waves hit a plane surface, it will become reflected
- The frequency/speed/wavelength stays the same
- Using a ripple tank can demonstrate this
Reflection, refraction and
diffraction
REFRACTION
- Speed of light changes when a wave travels from one medium to
another medium with a different density
- This causes the direction of the wave to change
- Water travels more slowly in shallow water compared to deep
water:
Reflection, refraction and
diffraction
DIFFRACTION
- Waves spread out when passing through a narrow gap or across the edge of an
object
- As water passes the gap, it spreads out as follows:
- Extent of diffraction depends on size of gap
compared to wavelength
- Diffraction can also occur at edge of barrier
- Longer wavelength = greater diffraction
WAVES, LIGHT,
SOUND
Light
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Reflection of light
- Incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal are all
on the same plane
- Angles of incidence and reflection are measured in
relation to the normal
- Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Mirror reflection
- Mirrors reflect light coming from
objects which then enter our eyes
- Ray diagrams can demonstrate how
an image of an object is formed inside
the mirror:
1. Trace 2 incident rays from object
2. Trace the reflected rays (remember:
angle of incident = angle of reflection)
3. Trace back the rays into the mirror
4. The point of intersection between
two rays behind the mirror is where
the image is formed
Properties of mirror images
- Mirror images are virtual images
Virtual images are formed when light APPEARS to converge in a
location which forms an image
Real images are formed when light ACTUALLY convergences in a
location which forms an image
- Same size as the actual object
- Same distance away from the mirror as the actual object
- Laterally inverted
Real vs virtual image
Refraction of light
- Light travels at different speeds depending on the refractive index
of the material
- Every material (medium) has a different refractive index
The higher the refractive index, the slower light travels
The lower the refractive index, the faster light travels
- Generally the denser the material the higher the refractive index
Refraction of light through
mediums
- Consider light travelling from A to B
- There are two possible scenarios:
1. Refractive index of A is lower than refractive
index of B
2. Refractive index of A is higher than refractive
index of B

- Consider light going from air into glass, and then

going back out the other end
- Air has a lower refractive index than glass
- When light enters, it travels from low to high index
- When light leaves, it travels from high to low index

•i = angle of incidence
•r = angle of refraction
•Light slows down as it enters a higher index
material, therefore bends towards the normal
•Light speeds up as it enters a lower index material,
therefore bends away from the normal
The critical angle & total internal
reflection
- Consider light rays going from a medium of higher to lower index
- Light bends away from the normal
- As angle of incidence increases, angle of refraction increases as
well
- If the angle of refraction is larger than 90, that means that the
entire light is reflected back into the medium (total internal
reflection)
- The critical angle is this limit – it is the angle of incidence that
causes an angle of refraction of 90
- When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, then
we get total internal reflection
Total internal reflection in optical
fibres
- Total internal reflection is used in
optical fibres
- Optical fibre has a thin glass core
with a outer cladding with a lower
refractive index
- Total internal reflection occurs for
all rays that hit the boundary
between core and cladding at a
angle larger than the critical angle
Thin converging lens
- Light coming from a very distance
object are considered parallel rays
- When parallel rays pass a convex
(converging) lens, light rays are
focused at a single point called the
principle focus
- The imaginary horizontal line at
right angles to the lens is the
principle axis
- The distance from the lens center
to the principle focus is the focal
length
Ray
diagrams
- Light travels from an object, passes
through a convex lens, and forms an image
- It is your job to trace the light rays and
determine the size and position of the image
- All convex lenses will have a focal point (or
principle focus)
The focal point and focal length is the
same on either side of the lens
- The initial construction will look like this:

- Consider an object being placed on the left

hand side
- There are three position positions for the
object
1. 2F and beyond
2. Between 2F and F
3. between F and the lens

- The resulting image of the object will be

different depending on these positions!
Ray tracing: Object beyond 2F

- From the top of the

object, draw three rays as
shown
- The point at which these
three lines meet is where
the imagine is positioned
- This results in an image
that is real, inverted, and
diminished
Ray tracing: Between 2F and F

- From the top of the

object, draw three rays
as shown

- This results in an
image that is real,
inverted, and magnified
Ray tracing: Between F and
the lens
- The image is virtual,
upright and magnified
 White light and dispersion
- White light is a complex
combination of all of the different
wavelengths of the visible
spectrum
- Each of the wavelengths have a
different colour i.e. green has a
wavelength of 500nm and red has
a wavelength of 700nm
- Light of a single frequency is
called monochromatic light
- Combining all monochromatic
light results in ‘white light’
- We can separate out the different
wavelengths by using a prism
- This is called dispersion
WAVES, LIGHT,
SOUND
Electromagnetic
spectrum
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Summary of electromagnetic
spectrum
-All electromagnetic
waves can travel
through vacuum and
all travel at the speed
of 3 X 10 ^ 8 m/s in
vacuum
- The higher the
frequency, the higher
the energy of
radiation
WAVES, LIGHT,
SOUND
Sound
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Production of sound
- Sound is a result of vibrating objects that cause a vibration of air
molecules
- Sound is a longitudinal wave (with compressions and rarefactions)
- We hear sound when sound waves reach our ear which causes
vibrations in our ear drums
- We hear frequencies of 20 Hz to 20KHz
- All waves (including sound) have a frequency and amplitude
1. Frequency (Hz) is the number of waves that passes a fixed
point her second
The higher the frequency the higher the pitch
2. The amplitude of the wave is the maximum displacement of
the vibration particles
The larger the amplitude, the louder the sound
Speed of sound
- Sound cannot travel through vacuum
- Sound must be transmitted through vibrations of particles within a medium
- The closer the particles are within the medium, the faster sound will travel
AIR = 330 m/s
WATER = 1500 m/s
SOLIDS = 5000 m/s

- Air particles are very spread out, so sound does not travel very fast
- Metals on the other hand are usually solids, and particles are much closer together
allowing quicker transmission of sound waves
Echoes
- When sound waves get reflected off a surface, it generates an
echo
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Simple
phenomena of
magnetism
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
MAGNETISM
• All magnets are made of ferromagnetic material (mainly
iron/steel)
• All magnets have a north and south pole

• Ferromagnetic materials have smaller magnetic units called

domains

Not a magnet / Magnet /

Non- Magnetized
 Induced magnetism
• By placing a magnet near a piece of iron, the iron will
become magnetized
• This is because the magnet will cause the iron domains to
align themselves

 Iron loses magnetism very quickly therefore it is a temporary magnet

 Steel retains some of its magnetism so becomes a permanent magnet (until demagnetized)
Magnetic field lines
MAGNETIC FIELDS
Electricity background – current

• Whilst electricity is the flow of electrons (from –ve to +ve)

• Current is the RATE OF flow of charge (from +ve to –ve)
Magnetic field in a wire
• Current flowing through a straight wire will also produce a
magnetic field
• A magnetic field around a coil of wire will produce a
magnetic field that is identical to a bar magnet
Right hand grip rule

N S
Magnetization
1.Stroking

2. Placing solenoid inside coil of wire with direct current

MAGNETIC FIELD ON A WIRE
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Electrical
quantities
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
CONDUCTORS & INSULATORS
 A conductor is something which allows electric current to flow
through it freely whereas an insulator prevents any electric current
flowing through it.
 Conductors have free flowing electrons which allow the passage of
electric current through the structure i.e. metals
Insulators have tightly bound electrons that are not free to move in
the structure i.e. rubber
ELECTRIC CHARGE
 Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to
experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. The
unit for charge is coulombs
 There are positive charges and negative charges. Opposite
charges attract and like charges repel.
ELECTRIC FIELD
 A region around an electric charge where another charge
experiences a force is called an electric field.
The field lines show the direction a positive charge would move if
placed in the field.

POINT PARALLEL PLATE

CHARGE
CHARGING A BODY
 Charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons.
 There are three main ways that we can charge a body: Friction,
conduction, induction
CHARGING BY FRICTION
 Different materials have different electron affinities
(i.e. love for electrons)
 When an object is rubbed over another object, the
electrons get transferred from one object to another
due to friction.
 The electrons will move from the material of lower
electron affinity to the material with higher electron
affinity
 The object that loses electrons becomes positively
charged and the object that accepts electrons
become negative charged.
 This only works for insulators because the
transferred electrons cannot be redistributed
 In metals, the gained/lost electrons are
immediately redistributed to discharge the material
 CURRENT
• Current is the rate of flow of charge
Charge (C)

Current
(A) Time (s)

• In metals, current is due to the flow of electrons.

• The direction of conventional current is opposite to the direction of
electron flow.

Electrons flow from the negative to positive terminal.

Conventional current flows from the positive to
negative terminal.
 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
• An electrical supply (a power pack, cell or battery) provides
electrical energy which drives charge around a complete circuit
• The electromotive force (e.m.f) is the electrical work done by a
source in moving a unit charge around a complete circuitand is
measured in volts (V).
Battery converts chemical energy into
electrical energy which is supplied to the
charge

9V battery supplies 9J of energy per

coulomb of charge
• V = EMF
• W = Work (energy)
• Q = charge in coulombs, C
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
• The potential difference or voltage across a component in a circuit is the work
done by a unit charge passing through a component (i.e lamp).
• Or simply, it is the amount of electrical energy converted into other forms (i.e.
light) per coulomb of charge
• It is also measured in volts (V).
Bulb converts electrical energy into
light energy

• V = Potential difference A 1V lamp converts 1J of electrical energy into light energy

• W = Work (energy) per coulomb of charge. It also means that 1J of energy per
• Q = charge in coulombs, C coulomb of charge is needed to drive current through the
lamp.
 RESISTANCE
• The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition
to the flow of electric current
• Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω)
• How to find the resistance of an unknown resistor

Unknown resistor

Voltmeter
Ammeter
RESISTANCE OF AN UNKNWON
RESISTOR
• The method before means that we are only working with one set of
readings.
• If we wanted to increase accuracy, we would want multiple
measurements of voltage & current and therefore calculate
resistance several times and average the results.
• By changing the resistance of the variable resistor, the current and
potential difference across the unknown resistor will change too
• As you change the resistance of the variable resistor, calculate the
resistance of the unknown resistor at each step using R = V/I
• You should end up with multiple (similar) values for the resistance of
the unknown resistor
• Average the results

Known resistance
that can be
altered
 RESISTANCE OF A WIRE
•The resistance of a wire can depend on two main things:
1. Length (of wire)
2. Area (of wire)
When the length of the wire is increased, the
current must travel further in the wire and thus
resistance increases

When the cross-sectional area of the wire is

increased (i.e. larger wire diameter) the current
has a greater area to travel through so the
resistance decreases.
ELECTRICAL WORKING
The components will convert the electrical energy into other forms
(i.e. a lamp will convert electrical energy into light energy).
• The rate at which the energy is transformed is the power. Power
can be calculated from the formula below.
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Electrical
circuits
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
SERIES VS PARALLEL
CIRCUITS

Series circuit forms a Parallel circuits have

single path. multiple branching
pathways for electrical
current
CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
1. Potentiometer
2. Relays
3. Diode
4. Input transducers
1. Thermistor
2. Light dependent resistor
VOLTAGE DIVIDER
A voltage divider is a simple circuit which
turns a large voltage into a smaller one.
Using just two series resistors and an
input voltage, we can create an output
voltage that is a fraction of the input.
POTENTIOMETER
• A potentiometer can give the circuit a certain level of control
i.e. volume control
• Fundamentally, a potentiometer can made from a variable
resistor.
• A variable resistor works by adjusting the path that current has
to flow.
• Take a look at the diagram on the right
- Resistor length X+Y • Sliding wire up will INCREASE the resistance
- Wire can move up or down the resistor by INCREASING length Y which INCREASES
- Vout is the voltage across length Y of resistor the output voltage.
- Changing length of X and Y by sliding the wire will change the
resistance of segment Y and therefore change Vout (i.e. V = I R) • Sliding wire down will DECREASE the
resistance by DECREASING length Y which
• If this set up is connected to another component, for example DECREASES the output voltage
an audio unit, then the variation of output voltage can
determine the volume of the unit i.e. larger the output volume
the larger the volume and vise versa.
RELAYS
• A relay is an electrically operated
switch.
• As electricity flows through the coil, it
can “energize” the relay and it turns the
coil into an electromagnet.
• The magnetic effect of this
electromagnet “attracts” the open
switch on the right and closes it to
connect the circuit.
• A small current through the left circuit
can be used to trigger the connection of
the second circuit on the right which has
a much higher current flowing through it.
DIODE
• A diode only allows one way flow of current through it (denoted by
the arrow or direction of the triangle in the circuit diagram).
• This property of the diode is used in the conversion of a.c. current
to d.c. current (rectification)

a.c. current – continuous change d.c. current – single direction of

in direction of current current
THERMISTORS
• A thermistor’s resistance decreases as
the temperature increases or vice versa
• It can therefore be used as a
temperature sensor.
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS
• The light dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that decreases
as light intensity increases (similar to a thermistor). This means that
it can be used as a light sensor.
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
dangers of
electricity
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Digital electronics
A digital system includes an input sensor and a
processor circuit, which controls the voltage to an
output device.
The processor circuit consists of a series of logic
gates.
Logic gates respond to small voltages which are
either on or off. They do not respond to analogue
signals.
An analogue signal varies continuously in
amplitude
A digital signal has only two states: High or low
(or on and off, or 1 and 0)
Electrical hazards
Damaged insulation
Electrocution can result in death
All electrical wires are therefore insulated
A damaged insulation can therefore be hazardous as it may result in
an electricity leak.
Overheating cables
Overheating cables can result in the melting of the wire insulation and
a consequent fire.
Damp conditions
The electrical resistance of the human body drastically decreases in
damp/wet conditions.
Wet conditions coupled with unsafe handling of electrical appliances
may lead to extremely large currents passing through the body
 The 3 colours of a three-pin
plug
earth
neutral

live
 The 3 colours of a three-pin
plug
•The LIVE wire is BROWN

It is connected to a fuse on the live pin. The electric current uses

the live wire as its route.
 The 3 colours of a three-pin
plug
•The NEUTRAL wire is BLUE

It is the route that the electric current takes when it exits an

appliance, therefore the neutral wire has a voltage close to zero.
 The 3 colours of a three-pin
plug
•The EARTH wire is GREEN & YELLOW

It is connected to the earth pin. It is used when the appliance has a

metal casing to take any current away as soon as the live wire
comes in contact with the casing.
Safety circuit components
Fuse
A fuse is a thin piece of wire designed to carry a set
maximum electrical current
Current that is higher than the maximum will melt from
the heat
When it melts, it breaks the circuit and thus stops the
current flowing.
Circuit breakers
Prevents excessive current passing through the circuit
It is an automated switch which interrupts current flow
when abnormally high current is detected.
A current in the coil will magnetize the iron core which
attracts the iron rocker.
The larger the current the stronger the magnetic pull
When the current becomes too high, the iron rocker will
separate from the contacts therefore breaking the
Safety circuit components
Earthing metal cases
An electric shock can occur if a live wire inside an electrical
appliance came loose and touched the metal casing (which
is of course a conductor).
To prevent this from happening, the earth terminal can be
connected to the metal casing so that the electricity can
pass through the earth instead of the human body, and
therefore avoiding electrocution.
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Electromagneti
c effects
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Electromagnetic induction

A conductor (such as a wire) moving across a magnetic field or

a changing magnetic field linking with a conductor can induce
an e.m.f in the conductor.
When a bar magnet is moved towards and away from a coil, it
induces emf within the coil.
Magnetic field lines of the magnet get ‘cut’ from the coil.
Bar magnet moving towards
the coil
When the north pole of the bar magnetic is moved towards the coil
needle on the voltmeter briefly flick to the right, before returning
to the centre.
Coil cuts the magnetic field lines of the bar magnet.
This induces an emf across
The emfthe coil the
across which
coil is measured
causes by to
a current theflow
voltmeter.
 The current causes the coil to act like a bar magnet.
 The direction of emf induced (and therefore
the north/south pole of the coil) will always
oppose the movement of the bar magnet
 Ifthe north pole of the bar magnet moves towards
one end of the coil, a north pole will be induced at
that end
Bar magnet moving away from the coil
When the north pole of the bar magnetic is moved away from the
coil
needle on the voltmeter briefly flick to the left, before returning
to the centre.
Coil cuts the magnetic field lines in the opposite direction
 The
The induced emf will also be direction
in the oppositeofdirection
emf induced (and
therefore the north/south pole of
the coil) will always oppose the
movement of the bar magnet
 Ifthe north pole of the bar magnet away
from one end of the coil, a south pole
will be induced at that end to oppose
movement
Magnitude (size)of induced EMF
The magnitude of e.m.f induced in the coil can be increased by:
Moving the magnet faster
Putting more turns in the coil
Using a stronger magnet
A.C. generator
The two types of current
A.C is alternating current, where the direction of current changes
periodically
D.C. is direct current, which is unidirectional
The AC generator makes a.c. current using the fundamentals of
electromagnetic induction
A.C GENERATOR
2
Pay attention to
1
The coil with
corners A,B,C,D
Two slip rings which
are connected to
an external circuit
AB connected to
slip ring 2, DC
connected to slip
ring 1
Rotating coil
A.C
•Magnetic field lines go
from north pole to south

GENERATOR pole
•As the coil rotates, it cuts
the magnetic field lines
and induces emf and
current
•In diagram, side AB will
cut the magnetic field
upwards and side CD cuts
the magnetic field
downwards
•As the coil rotates,
eventually AB will cut the
field downwards and CD
will cut it upwards
•Since the sides have now
FLEMINGS RIGHT HAND RULE

M C

M
C
F

CDAB
DIRECTION OF INDUCED
CURRENT
2
1

C
D
B
A
CDAB BADC
 AC VOLTAGE AGAINST TIME
VERTICAL

HORIZONTAL
HORIZONTAL
(coil moving)

VERTICAL
(coil moving)

VERTICAL
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer increases or decreases the voltage of an alternating current.

•A step-down transformer produces an output

voltage that is less than the input voltage
• Secondary coil has less turns than the
primary coil

•A step-up transformer produces an output voltage

that is greater than the input voltage
• Secondary
•A step-up coil has more
transformer turns
is use than up
to step the
primary
voltage coil from power stations onto
coming
powerlines that transmit electricity
• Power from power station is constant i.e.
P = VI
• Higher the voltage (V) the lower the
current (I)
• Lower current is good because less
TRANSFORMERS
FORCE ON A CURRENT
CARRYING CONDUCTOR
 DC The poles of the magnet are curved to
provide a circular magnetic field.

MOTOR This helps to keep the coil in a

constant magnetic field.
Each side of the coil experiences a force
due to the fact that it is carrying current
within a magnetic field.
This force causes the coil to rotation
(clockwise in this case).
The split-ring communicator turns with
the coil and is always in contact with the
brushes (which are fixed in place) to
ensure that current continues to flow to
the coil.
Each time the coil reaches a vertical
position, the two sides of the
communicator swap brushes.

REMEMBER: This reverses the flow of current to

Conventional current direction is OPPOSITE to ensure that the force on each side also
become reversed. This allows the coil to
electron direction
continue spinning.
DC
MOTOR
ATOMIC PHYSICS
The nuclear
atom
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
The structure of an atom
- Elements are substances that are made of a single
type of atom
- Every atom has a central nucleus containing
smaller sub-atomic particles called protons and
neutrons
- Protons and neutrons make up most of the weight
of the entire atom
Protons have a positive charge
Neutrons have no charge
- Electrons are much smaller (virtually weightless)
particles that orbit the nucleus
Electrons have a negative charge

- A neutral atom means that it has no net charge

meaning the number of protons (+) = number of
electrons (-)
- By losing or gaining electrons, atoms can become
charged – charged atoms are called ions
- Proton number = number of protons
- Nucleon (mass) number = sum of protons +
neutrons
Isotopes
- Isotopes are variants of the same atom
- Isotopes have the same proton/electron number, but they have a different
neutron number
- Isotopes therefore have the same proton number but different mass number

Mass numbers
Nuclear fission and fusion
- Two nuclei can interact by either fusing or breaking apart into
smaller pieces
- Nuclear fusion is the process by which two light nuclei combine
together and release vast amount of energy
- Nuclear fission is when an unstable heavy nucleus splits into
two smaller nuclei
Nuclid
e- For any given atom:
- Proton number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus
- Nucleon number (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons

The nuclide of an atom represents these values in the form of:

The discovery of the nucleus
- Small positive particles (alpha particles) were fired at a thin gold
foil
- Pathway of particles after colliding with foil was observed and
interpreted
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Radioactivity
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
 Radioactive decay
- Radioactivity decay is a spontaneous transformation of an unstable atomic nucleus
which releases radiation in the form of alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays
- In alpha decay, alpha particles are emitted from the original nucleus
Each alpha particle is equal to a helium nucleus: 2 protons & 2 neutrons i.e. Z = 2
&A=4

- In beta decay, a neutron is converted into a proton and an electron

- The electron is fired out of the nucleus whilst the proton remains
Neutron number therefore decreases by 1 & proton number increases by 1

- In gamma decay, the number of protons and neutrons are unchanged

- The gamma ray takes away some of the excess energy after the nucleus has
emitted an alpha or beta particle
Characteristics of radioactive particles
- As mentioned above radioactive decay results in
the emission of three types of radiation alpha (α),
beta(β) , and gamma (γ)
- These are ionizing radiations meaning it has the
ability to remove electrons from atoms that they
collide with (this is called ionizing effect)
- Once an atom loses an electron, there is a
charge imbalance i.e. more protons than
electrons, causing the atom to become an
positively charged ion
Effect of electric fields
Effect of magnetic fields
Half life
- A sample of a radioactive material
decays and the activity decreases
with time
- The activity is the number of
radioactive particles emitted per
second
- As number of unstable nuclei
decreases, the number of emitted
particles become reduced too
- It is different to assess when a
sample of radioactive material
completely stops because the activity
never really falls to zero
- The half life of a radioactive isotope
is the time taken for half of the nuclei
in the sample to decay (or the time
taken for the activity of a sample to
fall )to half of the original value
Safety precautions
- Ionizing radiation can kill or damage human cells
- This can cause DNA mutation that can eventually lead to cancer
- It is therefore important for people that are working with this sort
of radiation to keep safe from it
- Radiation workers wear film badges, which monitors the dose of
radiation exposed
- This allows them to ensure that they are not exposed to levels that
are unsafe
Detection of radioactivity
- G-M tube
GM tube detects ions produced when
alpha, beta or gamma radiation enters
the tube
- It is attached to a counter that
registers a count each time a
radioactive particle is detected

- Photographic film
- Photographic film is blackened by the
presence of ionizing radiation
- The higher the number of radioactive
particles, the blacker it becomes