MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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MECHANICS OF MATERIAL

Chapter

Introduction –
1 Concept of Stress
and Material

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Concept of Stress

• The main objective of the study of mechanics

of materials is to provide the future engineer
with the means of analyzing and designing
various machines and load bearing structures.

• Both the analysis and design of a given

structure involve the determination of stresses
and deformations. This chapter is devoted to
the concept of stress.

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Introduction

Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied

mechanics that deals with the behavior of solid bodies
subjected to various types of loading. Other names for
this field of study are strength of materials and
mechanics of deformable bodies.

The principal objective of mechanics of materials is to

determine the stresses, strains, and displacements in
structures and their components due to the loads acting
on them.

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Introduction

An understanding of mechanical behavior

is essential for the safe design of all types
of structures, whether airplanes and
antennas, buildings and bridges, machines
and motors, or ships and spacecraft.

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Normal Stress and Strain

The most fundamental concepts in mechanics of

materials are stress and strain. These concepts can be
illustrated in their most elementary form by
considering a prismatic bar subjected to axial forces.

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Normal Stress and Strain

Stress has units of force per unit area and is denoted

by the Greek letter σ (sigma). In general, the stresses
σ acting on a plane surface may be uniform
throughout the area or may vary in intensity from one
point to another.

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Normal Stress and Strain

(1-1)

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Normal Stress and Strain

When the load P does not act at the centroid,

bending of the bar will result, and a more
complicated analysis is necessary

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Normal Stress and Strain

The uniform stress condition pictured in Fig. above exists

throughout the length of the bar except near the ends. The
stress distribution at the end of a bar depends upon how
the load P is transmitted to the bar.

If the load happens to be distributed uniformly over the

end, then the stress pattern at the end will be the same as
everywhere else.

However, it is more likely that the load is transmitted

through a pin or a bolt, producing high localized stresses
called stress concentrations.
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Normal Strain

As already observed, a straight bar will change in

length when loaded axially, becoming longer when
in tension and shorter when in compression. For
instance, consider again the prismatic bar of above.
The elongation δ of this bar is the cumulative
result of the stretching of all elements of the
material throughout the volume of the bar.

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Normal Strain

In general, the elongation of a segment is equal to

its length divided by the total length L and
multiplied by the total elongation d. Therefore, a
unit length of the bar will have an elongation equal
to 1/L times δ. This quantity is called the elongation
per unit length, or strain, and is denoted by the
Greek letter ε (epsilon). We see that strain is given
by the equation

(1-2)

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Uniaxial Stress and Strain

The definitions of normal stress and normal strain are based upon
purely static and geometric considerations, which means that Eqs. (1-
1) and (1-2) can be used for loads of any magnitude and for any
material.

The principal requirement is that the deformation of the bar be

uniform throughout its volume, which in turn requires that the bar be
prismatic, the loads act through the centroids of the cross sections,
and the material be homogeneous (that is, the same throughout all
parts of the bar). The resulting state of stress and strain is called
uniaxial stress and strain.

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Line of Action of the Axial Forces for a Uniform Stress

Distribution

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Mechanical Properties of Materials

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Mechanical Properties of Materials

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Stress-Strain Diagrams

A more exact value of the axial stress, called the true stress,
can be calculated by using the actual area of the bar at the cross
section where failure occurs. Since the actual area in a tension
test is always less than the initial area (as illustrated in Fig. 1-8),
the true stress is larger than the nominal stress.

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Stress-Strain Diagrams

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Stress-Strain Diagrams

After performing a tension or compression test and

determining the stress and strain at various magnitudes of the
load, we can plot a diagram of stress versus strain. Such a
stress-strain diagram is a characteristic of the particular
material being tested and conveys important information
about the mechanical properties and type of behavior.

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Stress-Strain Diagrams

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Stress-Strain Diagrams

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Stress-Strain Diagrams

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Stress-Strain Diagrams

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Stress-Strain Diagrams

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Compression

Stress-strain curves for materials in compression differ from

those in tension. Ductile metals such as steel, aluminum, and
copper have proportional limits in compression very close to
those in tension, and the initial regions of their compressive
and tensile stress-strain diagrams are about the same.

However, after yielding begins, the behavior is quite different.

In a tension test, the specimen is stretched, necking may occur,
and fracture ultimately takes place. When the material is
compressed, it bulges outward on the sides and becomes barrel
shaped, because friction between the specimen and the end
plates prevents lateral expansion.

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Compression

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Elasticity, Plasticity And Creep

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Reloading of a Material

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Creep

When materials are loaded for long periods of time,

some materials develop additional strains and are said
to creep.

Creep is usually more important at high temperatures than at

ordinary temperatures, and therefore it should always be
considered in the design of engines, furnaces, and other
structures that operate at elevated temperatures for long
periods of time.

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Creep

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Linear Elasticity, Hooks Law and Poisson’s Ratio

Many structural materials, including most metals, wood,

plastics, and ceramics, behave both elastically and
linearly when first loaded. Consequently, their stress-
strain curves begin with a straight line passing through
the origin.

When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear

relationship between stress and strain, it is said to be linearly
elastic. This type of behavior is extremely important in
engineering for an obvious reason—by designing structures and
machines to function in this region, we avoid permanent
deformations due to yielding.

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Hooke’s Law

The linear relationship between stress and strain for a

bar in simple tension or compression is expressed by
the equation

Modulus of elasticity is often called

Young’s modulus

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Poisson’s Ratio
When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial
elongation is accompanied by lateral contraction(that is,
contraction normal to the direction of the applied load).

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Shear Stress and Strain

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Shear Stress and Strain

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Shear Stress and Strain

This connection consists of a flat bar A, a clevis C, and a bolt B
that passes through holes in the bar and clevis. Under the action
of the tensile loads P, the bar and clevis will press against the bolt
in bearing, and contact stresses, called bearing stresses, will be
developed.

The bearing area is defined as the projected area of the curved

bearing surface. For instance, consider the bearing stresses labeled 1.
The projected area Ab on which they act is a rectangle having a
height equal to the thickness of the clevis and a width equal to the
diameter of the bolt. Also, the bearing force Fb represented by the
stresses labeled 1 is equal to P/2. The same area and the same force
apply to the stresses labeled 3.
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Shear Stress and Strain

The free-body diagram of Fig. c shows that there is a tendency

to shear the bolt along cross sections mn and pq. From a free-
body diagram of the portion mnpq of the bolt, we see that shear
forces V act over the cut surfaces of the bolt.

In this particular example there are two planes of shear (mn

and pq), and so the bolt is said to be in double shear. In double
shear, each of the shear forces is equal to one-half of the total
load transmitted by the bolt, that is, V = P/2.

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Shear Stress and Strain

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Shear Stress and Strain

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Shear Stress and Strain

The average shear stress on the cross section of a
bolt is obtained by dividing the total shear force V
by the area A of the cross section on which it acts, as
follows:

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Equality of Shear Stresses on Perpendicular Planes

To obtain a more complete picture of the action of shear stresses,
let us consider a small element of material in the form of a
rectangular parallelepiped having sides of lengths a, b, and c in
the x, y, and z directions,

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Equality of Shear Stresses on Perpendicular Planes

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Shear Strain

Shear stresses acting on an element of material are accompanied by

shear strains. As an aid in visualizing these strains, we note that the
shear stresses have no tendency to elongate or shorten the element
in the x, y, and z directions—in other words, the lengths of the sides
of the element do not change. Instead, the shear stresses produce a
change in the shape of the element

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Hooke’s Law in Shear

The properties of a material in shear can be determined
experimentally from direct-shear tests or from torsion
tests. The latter tests are performed by twisting hollow,
circular tubes, thereby producing a state of pure shear

For many materials, the initial part of the shear stress-

strain diagram is a straight line through the origin

in which G is the shear modulus of elasticity (also called

the modulus of rigidity).
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Hooks Law in Shear

The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear are
related by the following equation:

in which n is Poisson’s ratio.

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Review of Statics

• The structure is designed to

support a 30 kN load
• The structure consists of a
boom and rod joined by pins
(zero moment connections) at
the junctions and supports
• Perform a static analysis to
determine the internal force in
each structural member and the
reaction forces at the supports

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Structure Free-Body Diagram

• Structure is detached from supports and
the loads and reaction forces are
indicated
• Conditions for static equilibrium:
 M C 0  Ax 0.6 m  30 kN 0.8 m 
Ax 40 kN
 Fx 0 Ax  C x
C x  Ax  40 kN
 Fy 0  Ay  C y  30 kN 0
Ay  C y 30 kN

• Ay and Cy can not be determined from

these equations

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Component Free-Body Diagram

• In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium
• Consider a free-body diagram for the boom:
 M B 0  Ay 0.8 m 
Ay 0
substitute into the structure equilibrium
equation
C y 30 kN

• Results:
A 40 kN  C x 40 kN  C y 30 kN 

Reaction forces are directed along boom

and rod

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Method of Joints
• The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e.,
the members are subjected to only two forces
which are applied at member ends

• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel to

to an axis between the force application points,
equal in magnitude, and in opposite directions

• Joints must satisfy the conditions for static

equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force triangle:

 B 0
F
FAB FBC 30 kN
 
4 5 3
FAB 40 kN FBC 50 kN

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Stress Analysis
Can the structure safely support the 30 kN
load?
• From a statics analysis
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

• At any section through member BC, the

internal force is 50 kN with a force intensity
or stress of
dBC = 20 mm P 50 103 N
 BC   159 MPa
A 314 10-6 m 2

• From the material properties for steel, the

allowable stress is
 all 165 MPa
• Conclusion: the strength of member BC is
adequate

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Design
• Design of new structures requires selection of
appropriate materials and component dimensions
to meet performance requirements
• For reasons based on cost, weight, availability,
etc., the choice is made to construct the rod from
aluminum all= 100 MPa) What is an
appropriate choice for the rod diameter?
P P 50 103 N 6 2
 all  A  500 10 m
A  all 100 106 Pa

d2
A 
4

d
4A


4 500 10  6 m 2  2.52 10 2 m 25.2 mm
 

• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter is

adequate
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Axial Loading: Normal Stress

• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• The force intensity on that section is defined as

the normal stress.
F P
  lim  ave 
A 0 A A

• The normal stress at a particular point may not be

equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy
P  ave A dF   dA
A

• The detailed distribution of stress is statically

indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
alone.

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Centric & Eccentric Loading

• A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.

• A uniform distribution of stress is only

possible if the concentrated loads on the end
sections of two-force members are applied at
the section centroids. This is referred to as
centric loading.

• If a two-force member is eccentrically

loaded, then the resultant of the stress
distribution in a section must yield an axial
force and a moment.

• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded

members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
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Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the
member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane
of section C and are called shearing forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the section
and is equal to the load P.
• The corresponding average shear stress is,
P
 ave 
A
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the
member surfaces to maximum values that may be
much larger than the average value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to
be uniform.
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Shearing Stress Examples

Single Shear Double Shear

P F P F
 ave    ave  
A A A 2A

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Bearing Stress in Connections

• Bolts, rivets, and pins create

stresses on the points of
contact or bearing surfaces of
the members they connect.

• The resultant of the force

distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin.

• Corresponding average force

intensity is called the bearing
stress,
P P
b  
A td

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Stress Analysis & Design Example

• Would like to determine the

stresses in the members and
connections of the structure
shown.

• From a statics analysis:

FAB = 40 kN
(compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)
• Must consider maximum
normal stresses in AB and
BC, and the shearing stress
and bearing stress at each
pinned connection

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Rod & Boom Normal Stresses

• The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.

• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the

circular cross-section (A = 314x10-6m2) is BC = +159
MPa.
• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-sectional
area occurs at the pin centerline,
A 20 mm 40 mm  25 mm  300 10 6 m 2

P 50 103 N
 BC ,end    6 2
167 MPa
A 300 10 m

• The boom is in compression with an axial force of 40

kN and average normal stress of –26.7 MPa.

• The minimum area sections at the boom ends are

unstressed since the boom is in compression.

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Pin Shearing Stresses

• The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B,
and C,
2
2  25 mm  6 2
A  r    49110 m
 2 

• The force on the pin at C is equal to the

force exerted by the rod BC,
P 50 103 N
 C , ave    6 2
102 MPa
A 49110 m

• The pin at A is in double shear with a

total force equal to the force exerted by
the boom AB,
P 20 kN
 A, ave   6 2
40.7 MPa
A 49110 m

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Pin Shearing Stresses

• Divide the pin at B into sections to determine
the section with the largest shear force,
PE 15 kN
PG 25 kN (largest)

• Evaluate the corresponding average

shearing stress,
PG 25 kN
 B, ave   50.9 MPa
A 49110 6 m 2

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Pin Bearing Stresses

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom AB,

we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b   53.3 MPa
td 30 mm 25 mm 

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the bracket,

we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b   32.0 MPa
td 50 mm 25 mm 

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Stress in Two Force Members

• Axial forces on a two force

member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• Transverse forces on bolts and

pins result in only shear stresses
on the plane perpendicular to bolt
or pin axis.

• Will show that either axial or

transverse forces may produce both
normal and shear stresses with respect
to a plane other than one cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

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Stress on an Oblique Plane

• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle with the normal plane.

• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.

• Resolve P into components normal and

tangential to the oblique section,
F  P cos V  P sin 

• The average normal and shear stresses on

the oblique plane are
F P cos P
   cos 2 
A A0 A0
cos
V P sin  P
   sin  cos
A A0 A0
cos
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Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
 cos 2   sin  cos
A0 A0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
P
m    0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
m  sin 45 cos 45   
A0 2 A0

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Editio
Third
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Stress Under General Loadings

• A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into
two segments by a plane passing
through Q

• The distribution of internal stress

components may be defined as,
F x
 x  lim
A 0 A

V yx Vzx
 xy  lim  xz  lim
A 0 A A 0 A

• For equilibrium, an equal and

opposite internal force and stress
distribution must be exerted on
the other segment of the member.

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 - 67

 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Editio
Third
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

State of Stress
• Stress components are defined for the planes
cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
• The combination of forces generated by the
stresses must satisfy the conditions for
equilibrium:
 Fx  Fy  Fz 0
 M x  M y  M z 0
• Consider the moments about the z axis:
 M z 0  xy Aa   yx Aa
 xy  yx
similarly,  yz  zy and  yz  zy

• It follows that only 6 components of stress

are required to define the complete state of
stress
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Editio
Third
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Factor of Safety

Structural members or machines Factor of safety considerations:

must be designed such that the • uncertainty in material properties
working stresses are less than the • uncertainty of loadings
ultimate strength of the material. • uncertainty of analyses
• number of loading cycles
FS Factor of safety
• types of failure
 ultimate stress
FS  u  • maintenance requirements and
 all allowable stress
deterioration effects
• importance of member to structures
integrity
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function

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