The Sun

Overall Properties

Radius: 696,342 km

Surface temperature: 5,772 K

Mass: 2 x 1030 kg
Luminosity and Intensity

Luminosity - Power emitted by the sun

Flux (Intensity) - Power received per unit area

𝜎 - Stefan-Boltzmann Constant - 5.67x10-8

L= A𝜎T4

F= L/4πd2
Solar Constant

Calculate the solar constant, which is the solar

radiation per unit area (W/m2) received on Earth.
T= 5772K, R☉ = 696,342 km, d = 1.496 x 108

𝜎 = 5.67x10-8
km,
Ans:

A = 4πR☉2

F= (4πR☉2𝜎T4)/(4πd2) = (R☉2/d2)𝜎T4

=(6963422/ 1.496 x 108)2 x 5.67x10-8 x 57724

= 1360 W / m2
Power incident on earth

Now using the solar constant, find the total power incident on
earth.

F = 1360W

R⨁ = 6370 km
Ans:

Area collecting sunlight is

the cross-sectional area of
earth

P = FA

P = 1360 x πR⨁2

1.73x1017 W
Core

From centre of sun to about 0.20 to 0.25 solar radii

Made of extremely hot plasma

Temperature of up to 15.7 million K

Density of up to 150 g/cm³

99% of energy from nuclear fusion generated within 0.24 solar

radii from centre
Radiative Zone

From 0.25 solar radii to about 0.7 solar radii

Temperature drops from 7 million K to 2 million K, density drops

from 20 g/cm3 to 0.2 g/cm3
Energy transferred outwards from the core by thermal radiation
Photons of energy repeatedly emitted and absorbed by ions of H
and He
No convection occurs – temperature difference insufficient
Rotates uniformly
Tachocline
Boundary region between radiative zone and convective zone

About 0.04 solar radii thick

Sharp change between rotation rates in radiative zone and

convective zones

Difference in rotation result in large shear (stretching when layers

flow horizontally past each other)

Shear and movement in the conducting plasma forms a magnetic

dynamo, detailed mechanism unknown
Convective Zone

From about 0.7 solar radii to its surface

Temperature drops to about 5700 K at the surface

Density decreases to 0.2 g/m3 at the surface

Plasma is not fully ionized due to lower temperature, radiation is

not very effective

Density is low enough & temperature gradient sufficient for

Granules
Convective currents occur in columns

Produce granules on Sun’s surface

Each granule is one convective column

Granules last about 8 minutes on average

Bright regions are warmer and rises upwards

Darker regions are cooler and sinks downwards

Photosphere
The surface of the convective zone

Tens to hundreds of kilometres thick

Used to describe the surface of a star

Everything below this layer is opaque to visible light as the

matter is sufficiently dense

Above the layer, light is free to escape

Slightly less opaque than the Earth’s atmosphere

Limb Darkening

Upper part of photosphere (4500 K) is cooler than lower part

(6000 K)

Causes the centre of the Sun’s disk to appear brighter than the
edges (‘limbs’) – limb darkening
Sunspots
Cooler regions of
photospheric gas

Appears darker than the

surroundings

Magnetic fields blocks

convection causing it to be
cooler

Umbra - 4500 K
Sunspots
Sunspots
Sunspots come in pairs

Leading (or trailing) sunspots in one

hemisphere always have the same polarity

Sunspots have opposite polarity in the other

hemisphere

Sunspots are most commonly found near the

solar equator due to its differential rotation
Sunspot Cycle

A period of around 11 years where the average number of spots

reaches a maximum then falls off almost to zero

Spots gradually appears closer to the equator during each cycle

Sunspots reverse polarity after each cycle ends

Sunspot cycle is a half of a the longer Solar Cycle (22 years)

Chromosphere

Lies above the photosphere

2000 km thick layer

Characteristic red/pink colour caused by H-alpha line

Spicules
Small solar storms erupt every few minutes

Forming these long thin spikes of matter known as spicules

Matter ejects at around 100km/s

Transition Zone

Region about 1500 km above the

photosphere

Temperature starts rising rapidly to

about 1 million K at an altitude of
about 10,000 km
Corona
Temperature is constant at about 1-2 million
K

New spectral lines observed that is not seen

in the photosphere due to high degree of
ionisation of the atoms

Reason why temperature rises so quickly is

not fully understood

Magnetic disturbances from the photosphere

Solar Wind

High temperature of the corona allows

the gases to escape from the sun’s
gravity and flow outwards into space.

Solar atmosphere is replenished from

the layers below
Solar Prominences

Loops of gas ejected from active regions (regions

near sunspots) due to the arching magnetic field
lines

Can quickly transfer mass and energy from one

part of the sun to another

May last from days to weeks

Solar flares

Sudden explosions and flashes of increased brightness in the

lower regions of the sun’s atmosphere

Releases an enormous amount of energy similar to prominences

in minutes to hours as compared to days to weeks in
prominences
Coronal mass ejection

Release of blobs of ionised gas with an

immense amount of energy into space

May be associated with a flare or a

prominence

Can cause disruptions to

telecommunications on earth
Coronal holes

Regions in the corona where matter is

deficient

Due to magnetic field lines that extends into

space

Since charged particles follow the magnetic

field lines, the matter freely streams into
space
Fusion

When temperatures are high enough, lighter nuclei can

overcome the electrostatic repulsion and allow nuclear forces to
take over
Fusion

Simpler example:
Mass defect

4m = 4
He
0.007(4m)
Energy released

0.007(4m)

E = mc 2
Energy released

0.007(4m)

E = mc 2

m = 1.67 x 10-27 kg
Energy released

E = mc2
If the all of the mass of the Sun (assume the sun is only
protons) undergoes fusion and 0.007 is converted to
energy, estimate the Sun’s lifetime in years.

Mass of Sun = 2 x 1030 kg

c = 3 x 108 m s-1
Luminosity of Sun = 3.828 x 1026 W
Energy released

If the all of the mass of the Sun (assume the sun is only
protons) undergoes fusion and 0.007 is converted to
energy, estimate the Sun’s lifetime.

Energy from fusion = 0.007 x 2 x 1030 x (3 x 108)2 = 1.26 x 1045 J

Time = Energy/Luminosity = 1.26 x 1045 / 3.828 x 1026
= 3. 3 x 1018 = 1 x 1011
years
Proton Proton chain
neutrino
Proper nuclear reactions

Step 1:

p + p → d + e+ + v deuterium

i.e. 1H + 1H → 2H + e+ + v

Requires temperature of 107 K positron

Proton Proton chain

Proper nuclear reactions

Step 2:

d + p → 3He + γ

i.e. 2H + 1H → 3He + γ
gamma
ray
Proton Proton chain

Proper nuclear reactions

Step 3:

3
He + 3He → 4He + 1
H + 1H
Proton Proton chain
Triple-alpha process

Step 1:

4
He + 4He → 8Be + γ
Requires temperature of 108 K

gamma
ray
Triple-alpha process

Step 1:

8
Be + 4He → 12
C+ γ

gamma
ray
CNO Cycle

In massive stars, the CNO

cycle converts 4 protons into
one 4He nucleus.
Solar neutrino problem

Large discrepancy between the flux of solar neutrinos as

predicted from the Sun’s luminosity and measured directly

The number detected was much lower than predicted

Why?
Solar neutrino problem

Neutrinos:

Comes in different flavours

1. Electron neutrino
2. Muon neutrino
3. Tau neutrino
Solar neutrino problem

The Sun produces electron

neutrinos

However, the neutrinos can

change flavours

Thus a lower quantity was

detected