Presented by : Archana Kumari
Supervised by : Dr. Amiya Kumar Samal
[Link]. Geology Hons.
Department of Geology
Institute of Science
Class Roll No: GL-68
Exam Roll Number: 22219GLG051
Greenstone Belts Of Dharwar Craton
What are Greenstone Belts?
Greenstone belts are characteristic features of Archean and Proterozoic cratons worldwide.
● They are thick sequences of metamorphosed volcanic rocks (primarily mafic to ultramafic,
giving them their greenish hue due to minerals like chlorite, actinolite, and epidote)
interlayered with metasedimentary rocks.
● These belts are typically linear to irregular in shape and are often surrounded and intruded
by voluminous granitoid batholiths.
● Their formation is linked to early Earth tectonic processes, which may have differed
significantly from modern plate tectonics due to a hotter mantle.
Dharwar Craton
What is a Craton?
● Ancient and stable part of the continental lithosphere.
● Survived multiple cycles of merging and rifting of continents.
The Dharwar Craton:
● One of the oldest and largest Archean cratons in the world.
● The Archaean Dharwar Craton (Fig.3D-l), covering an area of about
4.5 lakh (0.45 million) km2 , is bounded to the south by the Pan-
African Pandyan mobile belt (PMB); to the north by the end-
Cretaceous Deccan Trap, to the east by the Neoproterozoic
Eastern Ghats mobile belt (EGMB); and to the west by the Arabian
Location: Primarily in the state of Karnataka, extending into parts of eastern Andhra Pradesh,
southern Maharashtra, and northern Tamil Nadu in Southern India.
Fundamental Composition: Composed mainly of:
● Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite (TTG) gneisses: These are ancient granitic rocks
that often form the basement upon which greenstone belts were deposited or emplaced.
● Volcano-sedimentary greenstone sequences: Linear to curvilinear belts of
metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks.
● Younger calc-alkaline granitoids: Later granitic intrusions.
Tectonic Division: The craton is broadly divided into two major blocks by the prominent north-
south trending Chitradurga Shear Zone:
a. Western Dharwar Craton (WDC): Characterized by older ages (Paleoarchean to
Mesoarchean) and a different tectono-metamorphic history.
b. Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC): Generally younger (Neoarchean) with distinct
lithological and metallogenic characteristics.
Greenstone Belts of the Dharwar Craton: Classification and Age
The greenstone belts in the Dharwar Craton are classified based on their age, lithostratigraphy, and
tectonic setting, primarily distinguishing between those in the WDC and EDC. General lithology
difference between them :
Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) Greenstone Belts:
● Sargur Group :
○ Age: Among the oldest, Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean, typically >3.0 Ga
(some estimates suggest ages between 3.5 and 3.0 Ga).
○ Characteristics: Occur as enclaves or linear belts within the Peninsular
Gneiss. Dominated by ultramafic rocks (komatiites), mafic volcanics, and
associated sediments like quartzites (often fuchsite-bearing), pelites, and
Banded Iron Formations (BIF). They have undergone higher grades of
metamorphism (amphibolite to granulite facies).
○ Examples: Holenarsipur, Nuggihalli, Krishnarajpet, Sargur.
Sargur Schist Belt:
Location - The type area of Sargur Group is a zone of high-grade schist enclaves and narrow bands
near Sargur town, situated 40 km southwest of Mysore city
Lithology - Fuchsite quartzites, metapelites, carbonate- and calc-silicate rocks, . Carbonate rocks -
marbles; calc-silicate rocks - amphiboles, diopside, garnet and some graphite. Metapelites and some
quartzites are rich in garnet (almandine-pyrope), kyanite, sillimanite, staurolite, graphite and
corundum. Metapelites locally contain semiprecious stones like garnet, star corundum, kyanite etc.
Mafic-ultramafic rocks form one of the major components of the belt. Mafic rocks more abundant
than ultramafic rocks and are associated with iron formations. The ultramafic rocks are serpentinites
(meta-peridotites) and tremolite-actinolite-anthophyllite-chlorite-talc schists (meta-pyroxenites).
Structure - schistosity parallel to the bedding, intrafolial folds and migmatitic banding, second phase
of deformation has given rise to upright, tight to isoclinal folds, causing preservation of schists in
synformal keels and antiformal arches.
Geological map of Sargur schist
belt near the type area of Sargur
(after Viswanatha and
Ramakrishnan, 1981).
Komatiite with spinifex texture
in sargur group
Hole Narasipur Schist Belt
This trident-shaped schist
belt is of special interest
for regional geology
because the Sargur and
Dharwar successions are
not only well exposed in
the same belt, but also
are deformed and
metamorphosed together
during the later Dharwar
orogeny.
Structural concordance between Sargur and Dharwar sequences in the Holenarsipura belt
Nuggihalli Schist Belt
The ultramafic-mafic suite of Nuggihalli belt represents a
differentiated intrusion of serpentinised peridotite with lenses
of altered dunite, tremolite actinolite-cummingtonite-
anthophyllite-talc-chlorite-magnetite schists (meta pyroxenites),
and gabbroic amphibolites (±garnet) with layers of anorthosites.
Anorthosite occurs also as a dyke at Jambur.
The serpentinite contains many seams of chromitite (Fig.3D-7a),
which are sporadically mined. Chromitite seams contain traces
of platinoids. Marginal gold occurrences and chrysotile as well
as amphibole asbestos are seen in ultramafic rocks
Chromite seams in serpentinite near
marginal deposits of copper with minor nickel, as well as rare Tagadur, Nuggihalli belt
semi-precious corundum in titanomagnetite.
Dharwar Supergroup of WDC (Younger
Greenstone Belts)
Age: Mesoarchean to Neoarchean, unconformably overlie the Peninsular Gneiss and Sargur
Group, ranging from approximately 2.9 to 2.6 Ga.
Subdivision:
● Bababudan Group (Lower Dharwar): Predominantly volcanic with significant quartz
pebble conglomerates, quartzites, basalts (often pillowed), and extensive BIFs.
Represents a shelf-type depositional environment.
● Chitradurga Group (Upper Dharwar): More diverse, comprising a thick pile of
greywacke-argillite suites, chemogenic precipitates (cherts, carbonates, BIFs,
manganese formations), and varied volcanic rocks (basalts, andesites, rhyolites).
Suggests a transition from shelf to deeper marine or arc-related settings.
Characteristics: Generally larger and better preserved than Sargur Group belts, with lower-
grade metamorphism (greenschist to lower amphibolite facies).
Examples: Chitradurga, Shimoga, Bababuddan, Gadag.
Bababudan-Western ghat - Shimoga Superbelt:
This superbelt is spread over an area approx. 300 km long and
100-150 km wide, with schistose rocks occupying about 30000
km2 and the remaining 15000 km2 occupied by the intervening
basement of Peninsular Gneiss. Shimoga belt is linked to the
Chitradurga belt through a small bridge of schists cusped between
domal areas of gneisses near Harapanahalli (Chadwick et al.
2003, 2007).
Bababudan Schist Belt:
The Bababudan schist belt, located in the Dharwar Craton of
Karnataka, India, is a significant geological feature representing a
Late Archaean/Early Proterozoic volcano-sedimentary sequence.
It's part of the larger Bababudan-Western Ghats-Shimoga super
belt and is characterized by a lithological sequence that includes
metavolcanics, banded iron formations, and other sedimentary
rocks. Banded Iron Formation
Western Ghat Belts
● A large schist belt covering an area of about 2200 km2
and extending from Kuduremukh in the south to Jog
Falls in the north.
● The stratigraphic succession is similar to that of
Bababudan schist belt. Quartz-pebble-conglomerate of
● Basal bed resting unconformably over the basement bababudan group
gneiss is the oligomict quartz-pebble conglomerate
(Walkunji Conglomerate).
● Amygdular metabasalts with rare agglomerates,
interbeds of quartzites, phyllites and minor BIF overlie
the conglomerate-quartzite bed.
● A major unit of Algoma-type BIF caps the Aroli hills of
Kuduremukh area, and the Kodachadri hills, where
they were explored for iron ore. BIF of Ingaldhal Formation,
Chitradurga
Shimoga belt:
● It covers an area of 25,000 km2 and extends from Tarikere valley to Goa and beyond to Ratnagiri in
Maharashtra, separated from Bababudan and Western Ghats belts by TTG gneisses but is linked through
small arms of schists.
● Sargur group - Small lenses of serpentinite (e.g., at Amrutapura) with chrysotile asbestos and chromite,
as well as other ultramafic schists, amphibolites and BI F belonging to Sargur Group are seen to the
north of Tarikere valley.
● Bababudan Group consists essentially of dark green metabasites rich in secondary carbonates and
amygdales of quartz, carbonate and chlorite, the metabasalt is pillowed. Minor felsic volcanics and tuffs
are also seen
● Chitradurga - an ensemble of polymict conglomerates, phyllites, greywackes, orthoquartzites,
limestone, dolomite and sporadic BI F bands. a major basic to acid volcanic complex is seen in
Daginkatte Malebennur area. carbonate-chert unit containing stromatolitic structures support the idea
of shallow marine conditions.
● Structure - The cover rocks are deformed in a ductile manner with local decollements (e.g., Nidnegal
anticline) and form upright folds between basement domes that are separated by shear zones.
Polyphase deformation - 3 major.
Chitradurga - Gadag superbelt:
● It is a long, linear belt, extending for approximately 400-460 kilometers from
Gadag in the north to Srirangapatna (or near Mysore) in the south.
● The belt reaches its maximum width (around 40 km) near Chitradurga
● It exposes the complete succession of cratonic rocks viz., Sargur and Dharwar
supracrustals, basement and intrusive gneisses and younger K-rich granitoids
● Although contiguous with the main Chitradurga belt, the Gadag part is
described sometimes as Gadag schist belt because of its significance for gold
● Multiple phases of deformation and metamorphism,increasing from north to
south (greenschist to lower amphibolite grade).
● Structurally characterized by a central anticline flanked by synclines.
● Kyanite-mica schist yields Sm-Nd (TDM) model age of 3100 Ma,
Pillow lavas of Chitradurga Belt
stromatolitic carbonates of Chitradurga greenstone belt
JC Pura schist belt:
A major N-S trending structural dome, rimmed by ultramafic-mafic rocks and cored by gneiss, is
truncated by the Dharwar unconformity.
[Link] belt is well known for its spinifex textured komatiites that also exhibit pillows, ocelli and
polyhedral joints.
Rarely, fine-grained quartzite is seen in the belt. These detrital quartzites give SHRIMP U-Pb age of -
3300 Ma, which is also corroborated by the Sm-Nd dating of the ultramafics.
Spinifex textured komatiite at J.C. Pura Pillowed komatiite, J.C. Pura
Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) Greenstone
Belts:
● Age: Predominantly Neoarchean, around 2.7 to 2.5 Ga.
● Characteristics: Typically narrower, linear belts dominated by volcanic rocks
(basalts, andesites, felsic volcanics) with subordinate sedimentary rocks (BIF,
chert, minor clastics). Often associated with voluminous younger granitic
intrusions (the "Dharwar Batholith"). Metamorphic grades vary but can reach
amphibolite facies. These belts are particularly known for their gold
mineralization.
● The greenstone belts of EDC form linear arrays of what may be called superbelts
or composite belts that extend underneath the Cuddapah basin.
● The linear arrays of superbelts in the EDC are the following:
(1) Ramagiri-(Penakacherla-Sirigeri)-Hungund superbelt
(2) Kolar-Kadiri-Jonnagiri-Hutti superbelt
(3) Veligallu-Raichur-Gadwal superbelt
Sandur schist belt:
● Location - It is a prominent boat-shaped belt (60x20 km) sited
over the northern part of Closepet Granite
● Lithology - cross-bedded quartzites, stromatolitic limestones,
volcanics and BIF, succeeding unit of pillowed basic volcanics,
BIF and minor greywackes. At margin- metasedimentary units
and centre- volcanic complex
● The normally cherty BIF is associated with an unusual granular Stromatolites of Sandur
type BIF (called GIF). GIF (Granular Iron Formation) represents greenstone belt.
transgression-regression cycles related to submarine volcanism.
● Age- Pb-Pb age of Deogiri limestone of -2500 Ma and felsic
volcanics at -2600 Ma.
● Structure - the eastern and western arms of the belt represent
upright synclinal sheath folds, both folds being separated by a
steepened thrust called the Sandur valley discontinuity.
Elongated clasts in
conglomerate of Sandur GSB
Ramagiri-Penekacherla-Sirigeri-Hungund
Superbelt
Two discontinuous stretches of this greenstone belts, Ramagiri-Penakacherla-
Sirigeri greenstone belt and Hungund greenstone belt.
Ramagiri-Penakacherla-Sirigeri greenstone belt: The belt extends in the north up
to the Tungabhadra River.
The regional stratigraphy consists of three main units, viz., the lower, middle and
upper. The lower unit consists of mafic-ultramafic intrusions, quartzites, calc-
silicate rocks, siliceous schists and BIF. The middle unit consists of pillowed Chert-tuff association at Ramagiri
metabasalts, chlorite-sericite schists and BIF, forming the bulk of the greenstone
belt. The upper unit consists of greywackes, BIF and mafic-felsic volcanics and
pyroclastics.
Hungund Greenstone Belt: Hungund belt is separated from the Ramagiri-Sirigeri
belt by a narrow zone of granitoids along the Tungabhadra River. Metabasalts
along the margins and a metasedimentary unit in the [Link] volcanics
underlie the metasediments. It is believed that partial melting of mantle source
and of slab basalt has caused the compositional diversity of volcanics in the belt. Quartz porphyry in Hungund belt.
Kolar-Kadiri-Jonnagiri-Hutti Superbelt :
Kolar: Southernmost, narrow, linear belt (160 km2). Kolar belt graduates in the south into the charnockitic
terrain near Krishnagiri. Intruded by granite and granodiorite gniesses on all sides.
It consists of amphibolites of various textures - granular, massive, tufted and schistose. The amphibolites
yield Pb-Pb isochron ages of -2700 Ma, like the Ramagiri volcanics. BIF, cordierite-sillimanite-fuchsite
quartzites, calc-silicate rocks, manganiferous chert and carbonate. Gold suites are also present.
Kadiri: The narrow linear Kadiri belt (75x2.5 km) forms in the northern extensions of Kolar greenstone belt.
The belt consists mainly of acid volcanics (rhyolite, quartz-feldspar porphyry and tuffaceous quartz-sericite
schist) with polymict, granite-clast, volcanic conglomerates, siliceous chlorite-sericite schists, tuffs and
greywackes and BIF, along with subordinate basic volcanics.
Jonnagiri Greenstone Belt: This spindle shaped belt, situated to the north of Gooty, has recently been
mapped because of gold-copper mineralisation. Composed mostly of pillowed and amygdular basic
volcanics, basic ultrabasic sills, felsic volcanics (rhyolite and rhyodacite), oxide and sulphide facies BI F and
minor siliceous tuffs. The sigmoidal shape of the belt is due to an early overturned fold refolded by upright
folds. The belt has a strongly sheared eastern margin.
Hutti Greenstone Belt: the northernmost extension of Kolar greenstone belt, rich in gold
mineralisation. It covers an area of about 670 km2 and consists of basic volcanic suite, tuffaceous
chlorite schists, minor BIF, younger unit rich in basic acidic volcanics, greywackes and polymict,
granite-clast conglomerates.
Hook-shaped configuration as a result of cross folding and deflection. The granitic clasts in the
Palkanmaradi conglomerate have given SHRIMP U-Pb age of -2600 Ma.
Chromite pods in the boninites of vesicular basalts of Jonnagiri belt copper mineralization in the
Gadwal belt volcanic rocks of Jonnagiri belt.
Veligallu-Raichur-Gadwal Superbelt :
The superbelt commences in the south as two parallel arms of Veligallu greenstone belt emerging from the
Cuddapah basin. It bifurcates again into two divergent which is Raichur belt in the west and Gadwal belt in
the east.
Veligallu Greenstone Belt: It split into two parallel arms by the intervening intrusive granite, and continues
in the north right up to the boundary of the Proterozoic basin. The belt consists of metabasaltic
amphibolites with pillows and amygdales, minor ultramafic schists and BIF and a smaller unit of felsic
volcanics and pyroclastics including a polymictic conglomerate. The belt is intruded by granitoids containing
some small patches of banded gneiss.
Raichur Greenstone Belt: This (75x6 km2 ) belt, has metabasalts with felsic volcanics (dacites and
rhyodacite) and cherts. Numerous meta-basaltic amphibolite enclaves occur near Deodurg and between
Shorapur and Shahpur.
Gadwal Greenstone Belt: This belt (85x3 km2 ) extending up to Narayanpet (also called Narayanpet belt) is
also made of pillowed to massive metabasalts, felsic volcanics, volcanoclastics, BI F and volcanic
conglomerate of Ulindakonda (Champion Gneiss). The schists are also intruded by a variety of granites.
Formation theories of greenstone belts
Mantle Plume/Hotspot Activity: Large igneous provinces resulting from mantle plumes could
have generated the voluminous mafic and ultramafic volcanic piles. The high-magnesian
komatiites are often linked to plume activity. The predominance of komatiites in the Archean,
their decreasing occurrence in the Proterozoic, and extreme rarity in the Phanerozoic have
been interpreted to reflect secular cooling of the mantle.
Plume - Arc relationship: alkaline basalts from the 2.7 Ga Penakacherla greenstone terrane
of eastern Dharwar Craton are geochemically analogous to Phanerozoic alkaline ocean island
basalts. The association of these alkaline OIB with high Mg basalts reflects mantle plume
activity and subduction.
Boninites, picrites arc basalt found in greenstone belts of WDC are attributed to the
Subduction Processes. (early stage of subduction process)
As the subduction progresses, the subducting slab reaches to melting stage and gives rise to
adakites(at mature stage).
● Combined Model: Many researchers believe that a combination of horizontal
(plate tectonic-like) and vertical tectonic processes, possibly involving both
plumes and subduction, contributed to the complex evolution of greenstone
belts.
The two generations of volcano-sedimentary greenstone sequences viz. 3.3–3.1 Ga
Sargur Group and 2.9–2.6 Ga Dharwar Supergroup correspond to both arc-style and
non-arc-style volcanism and provide clues for the continent generation, lithospheric
evolution and crustal growth via early stage plume mantle activity to modern-style,
short term, episodic subduction-controlled plate tectonics consistent with gradual
decrease of mantle temperature.
Economic Significance
The greenstone belts of the Dharwar Craton are of immense economic importance, hosting
a variety of metallic mineral deposits:
● Gold (Au): This is the most significant mineralization.
○ EDC: World-renowned for lode gold deposits, particularly in the Kolar Gold
Fields (historically one of the deepest mines) and Hutti Gold Mines. Other
notable gold-bearing belts include Ramagiri and Jonnagiri. Gold is typically found
in quartz-carbonate veins within shear zones.
○ WDC: Also contains gold deposits, though generally smaller than in the EDC.
Examples include deposits in the Gadag and Chitradurga schist belts, often
associated with BIF and sulphidic schists.
Iron Ore (Fe): Extensive deposits of high-grade Banded Iron Formations (BIF) are mined in several
belts.
● WDC: Bababudan, Shimoga, Chitradurga, and Sandur (though Sandur is often grouped with EDC
due to its location and younger granitic association) are major iron ore producing regions.
Manganese Ore (Mn): Associated with BIF and argillaceous manganese-rich layers.
● WDC & EDC: Significant deposits are found in the Sandur, Shimoga, and Chitradurga belts.
Copper (Cu) and other Base Metals (Pb, Zn):
● WDC: Chitradurga belt (e.g., Ingaldhal) is known for copper deposits, often stratiform and
associated with volcanic rocks.
Chromite (Cr): Found in ultramafic rocks of the older Sargur Group.
● WDC: Nuggihalli host chromite deposits.
Other Minerals: Silver (as a byproduct of gold mining), magnesite, asbestos (associated with ultramafic
rocks), and kyanite.
Conclusion:
The greenstone belts of the Dharwar Craton represent a rich archive of Earth's
early evolution, spanning over a billion years of Archean history. They provide
invaluable insights into:
● The nature of Archean volcanism and sedimentation.
● The evolution of the early atmosphere and hydrosphere.
● The processes of crustal formation and tectonic styles that prevailed on a
younger, hotter Earth.
● The genesis of significant ore deposits.
Ongoing research continues to unravel the complexities of these ancient terrains,
contributing to our understanding of planetary evolution and resource formation.
Sources:
● Geology of India IVI. Ramakrishnan R. Vaidyanadhan Vol 1 (2010)
● A.C. Khelen et al. / Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020)
● C. Manikyamba et al. / Gondwana Research 50 (2017)
● J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)
● [Link]
s-primordial-tectonics/
THANK YOU !
