presented by Group 8

Qns. Describe Practical filtering techniques in biomedical signal

and systems
BIOSIGNAL SYSTEM
 Introduction
Filter passes one band and rejecting another
• Effective filtering is essential to enhance signal quality
TYPES OF NOISE
1.random noise refers to an interference that arises from a random
process, such as thermal noise in electronic devices.
2.structured noise . Analysis of the power spectrum of a given noisy
signal can reveal the presence of structured or periodic noise in the form of
peaks or spikes at the fundamental frequency and its harmonics. example
Power-line interference at 50 Hz or 60 Hz
TYPES OF NOISE
3.Physiological interference
• EMG related to coughing, breathing, or squirming affecting the ECG
• EGG interfering with precordial ECG
• Maternal ECG getting added to the fetal ECG of interest
• ECG interfering with the EEG
• Ongoing EEG in ERPs and SEPs
• Breath, lung, or bowel sounds contaminating the heart sounds (PCG)
• Heart sounds getting mixed with breath or lung sounds
• Muscle sound (VMG) interference in joint sounds (VAG) Needle-insertion
activity appearing at the beginning of a needle-EMG recording
Component Selection of filters
• Selecting the right components forms the backbone of an effective Several
key factors must be considered:
• Component Type: Different components, such as resistors, capacitors, and
inductors, each have unique characteristics that affect the filter’s operation.
Understanding which type to use can significantly change performance.
• Tolerances:. Components with tighter tolerances ensure that the filter performs
closer to the design specifications, reducing variations in frequency response.(-
0.1 or 0.1)
• Temperature Coefficient: This defines how the component's values change
with temperature. Choosing components with suitable temperature coefficients
ensures that the filter remains effective across varying environmental
conditions.
• Quality Factor (Q): This factor relates to the selectivity and bandwidth of the
filter. A higher Q factor indicates a narrower bandwidth, which can be
beneficial in applications requiring precise frequency attenuation.
Classifications of filters
Typically implemented in one of three technologies:
passive RLC filters, active RC filters and switched capacitor filters.
• Passive filters work well at high frequencies, however, at low frequencies the
required inductors are larges, bulky and non-ideal. Furthermore, inductors are
difficult to fabricate in monolithic from and are incompatible with many
modern assembly systems.
• Active RC filters utilize op-amps together with resistors and capacitors and
are fabricated using discrete, thick film and thin-film technologies. The
performance of these filters is limited by the performance of the op-amps
(e.g., frequency response, bandwidth, noise, offsets, etc.). Switched-capacitor
filters are monolithic filters which typically offer the best performance in the
term of cost. Fabricated using capacitors, switched and op-amps. Generally
poorer performance compared to passive LC or active RC filters
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• Filters are generally linear circuits that can be represented as a two-
port network

• The filter transfer function is given as follows

• The magnitude of the transmission is often expressed in dB in terms of
gain function

• Or, alternatively, in terms of the attenuation function

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• A filter shapes the frequency spectrum of the input signal, according to
the magnitude of the transfer function. The phase characteristics of the
signal are also modified as it passes through the filter. Filters can be
classified into a number of categories based on which frequency bands
are passes through and which frequency bands are stopped.
FILTERING TECHNIQUES FOR
BIOMEDICAL SIGNALS
• LOW PASS FILTER
• HIGH PASS FILTER
• BUTTERWORTH FILTERING
• NOTCH FILTERING
• KALMAN FILTERING
• ACTIVE FILTER
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF FILTER
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• Center frequency/ Pass band frequency
• Quality factor Q (how fast the roll-off is)
• Ideal filters could not be realized using electrical circuits,therefore the
actual response of the filter is not a brick wall response as shown
above but increases or decreases with a roll-off factor. Realistic
transmission characteristics for a low pass filter are shown below.
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• Transmission of a low pass filter is specified by four parameters: - Passband
edge, ωp - Maximum allowed variation in passband transmission, Amax -
Stopband edge, ωs - Minimum required stopband attenuation, Amin
• The ratio ωs/ωp is usually used to measure the sharpness of the filter response
and is called the selectivity factor. The more tightly one specifies a filter (i.e.,
lower Amax, higher Amin, ωs/ωp closer to unity) the resulting filter must be of
higher order and thus more complex and expensive.
• Amax is commonly referred as the passband ripple. The process of obtaining a
transfer function that meets given specifications is known as filter
approximation. Filter approximatiton is usually performed using computer
programs or filter design ables. In simple cases, filter approximation can be
performed using closed form expressions.
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Butterworth response
• For a Butterworth filter, the optimum is flat response in the passband
and steep slope soon after cutoff (maximum flat filter). This is done by
combining low Q section and high Q section. The problem is similar
to finding Fourier series of a square wave. The solution lies in the use
of the Butterworth polynomial. Four and eight-pole Butterworth filters
are common.
Standard table can be used to find component values.
Butterworth filters are also called maximum flat filter.
Chebyshev response
In some applications, the sharpness of the cutoff response is more
important than the passband flatness. By adding higher resonant peaks,
it is possible to obtain sharper cutoff at the expense of peaks in the
passband. The section cutoff frequencies and Q factors can be
determined using Chebyshev polynomials. Whereas for the Butterworth
filter, we only specify the number of poles or zeroes of the filter, for a
Chebyshev filter, we specify the number of poles (zeroes) and passband
flatness (i.e., a 0.5dB Chebyshev filter has a minimum peak 0.5dB
above the minimum valley in the passband (equal–ripple filter)
LOW PASS FILTERS
• Low Pass filters are filters that allow the passage of low frequency
signals and attenuate high frequency signals.
• A first order low pass filter consists of an inductor in series with the
load resistor or a capacitor in parallel with the load resistor.
• Inductive Model of a First Order Low Pass Filter As the frequency at
the input increases, the impedance of the inductor increases. Hence,
the high frequency signals do not pass through the inductor onto the
load. However, the low frequency signals pass through.
• Cut off Frequency This is the frequency at which the magnitude of the
transfer function is 0.707 which is 1/√2
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Second order low pass filter
• A second order low pass filter blocks high pass frequencies more
effectively due to the presence of two energy storing elements
(capacitor and inductor).
practical applications of low pass filters
• Low pass filters are used to filter noise from a circuit. 'Noise' is a high
frequency signal. When passed through a low pass filter most of the
noise is removed and a clear sound is produced.
• Low pass filters are also used in various audio applications and are
sometimes known as high-cut or treble cut filters

Problem: Design a frequency-domain filter to remove high-frequency

noise with minimal loss of signal components in the specified passband
HIGH PASS FILTER
• High Pass filters are filters that stop the passage of low frequency
signals and allow the passage of high frequency signals.
• WORKING PRINCIPLE
The High Pass filter functions exactly in the opposite fashion as compared
to the Low Pass filter. The capacitor and inductor in each circuit are
switched as compared to the Low Pass filter. In the capacitive model, as
the frequency increases, the inductance of the capacitor decreases and it
allows passage to high frequency waves. In the inductor model, the
inductor behaves as a short at low frequencies and absorbs all the low
frequencies and hence most of the voltage gets dropped on the load
resistor.
Capacitive Model of a First Order High Pass
Filter
• As the frequency at the input increases, the impedance of the capacitor
decreases. Hence, the capacitor allows passage of high frequency
signals
Inductive Model of a First Order High Pass
Filter
• As the frequency at the input increases, the impedance of the inductor
increases. Hence, the low frequency signals pass through the inductor
and all the voltage is seen across the output at higher frequencies.
Second Order High Pass Filter
• A second order high pass filter blocks low pass frequencies more
effectively due to the presence of two energy storing elements
(capacitor and inductor)
Notch filter
A notch filter, also known as a band-stop filter or band-reject filter, is
designed to significantly lower the amplitude of specific frequency
ranges while allowing other frequencies to pass unaffected. The defining
characteristic of a notch filter is its narrow bandwidth.
• Notch filters can target specific frequencies, making them ideal for
applications requiring high precision.
• They allow the unaffected frequencies to pass through with minimal
attenuation, which is crucial for maintaining signal quality.
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Biomedical Applications
• In biomedical fields, notch filters are crucial for signal processing.
They are often used in medical devices to filter out muscle artifacts
and other noise that may interfere with accurate readings. An excellent
example is in electrocardiograms (ECGs), where notch filters can
eliminate power line interference, allowing for clearer heart signal
readings.
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The capacitor and resistor are used in the notch filter circuit. Capacitor
value must be less than or equal to 1µF. the value of the resistor can be
calculated by using the equation of center frequency.
This notch filter is very much useful in eliminating single frequency at
50 or 60Hz.
Frequency Response
• The frequency response of a notch filter defines its behavior across a
range of frequencies. This is typically represented using a Bode plot,
where the gain of the filter is plotted against frequency. A key feature
of the frequency response of a notch filter is the steep drop in gain at
the notch frequency, which indicates how effectively the filter
suppresses the unwanted signal.
• frequency fC = 1/2πRC
Types of Notch Filters
• Active Notch Filters
• Active notch filters utilize amplifying components. These filters provide gain,
which can enhance the overall performance. They are often built with
operational amplifiers.
• Passive notch filters do not use amplifying components. Instead, they rely on
resistors, capacitors, and inductors. This simplicity is a notable advantage.
Since these components do not need a power source, passive filters are often
more reliable.
• One major characteristic of passive filters is that they do not boost signals.
They can only attenuate signals present at specific frequencies. This makes
them suitable for applications where amplification is not required. For
example, in audio engineering, passive notch filters can remove hum or
interference without altering the main signal.(Example in ultrasond machine)
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• In the prediction step, the filter uses the mathematical model to predict
what the system's state should be at the next time step. This prediction is
based on the current state estimate, as well as any control inputs that are
being applied to the system. The prediction also includes an estimate of
the uncertainty in the predicted state, based on the model's accuracy
• In the update step, the filter uses the sensor measurements to adjust its
estimate of the system's state. Specifically, it compares the predicted state
from the prediction step with the actual sensor measurement, and updates
its estimate of the state accordingly. The update also adjusts the
uncertainty estimate, based on the reliability of the sensor measurements
Kalman filter
• Kalman filters are a powerful tool for estimating the state of a system,
given noisy sensor measurements. They were originally developed by
Rudolf Kalman in the 1960s, and have since become a staple of
control theory, navigation, signal processing, and many other fields.
The basic idea behind a Kalman filter is to use a mathematical model
of the system being measured, along with noisy sensor measurements,
to estimate the true state of the system. The filter consists of two main
steps: prediction and update.
features of a Kalman filter
• it takes into account both the model predictions and the sensor
measurements, and combines them in an optimal way. Specifically, the
filter minimizes a cost function that weights the errors in the predicted
state and the sensor measurements, taking into account their respective
uncertainties
• it can handle nonlinear systems, by using an extended Kalman filter
(EKF) or unscented Kalman filter (UKF) variant. These variants use
local linearizations of the system model to approximate the nonlinear
behavior, allowing the filter to still work effectively.
Wavelet-Based Denoising technique

It Decomposes signals into time-frequency components.

•- Thresholding removes noise coefficients (e.g., muscle artifacts in EEG).

•- Effective for non-stationary signals like EMG bursts.

•Statistical Methods

•- Principal Component Analysis (PCA): Reduces dimensionality by isolating

dominant components (e.g., separating heart sounds from lung sounds).

•- Independent Component Analysis (ICA): Separates statistically independent

sources (e.g., isolating eye-blink artifacts in EEG).
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- LMS/NLMS Algorithms: Dynamically adjust coefficients using a reference noise
signal.

- Example: Removing baseline wander in ECG by referencing low-frequency noise.

- Application: EEG artifact cancellation using EOG/EMG references.

Methods to analyse filter
• The transfer function of a low-pass filter is characterized by its ability
to attenuate higher-frequency components while allowing lower-
frequency components to pass through. Mathematically, the transfer
function of a low-pass filter can be represented as: H (s) = 1 / (1 +
s/ωc
• Nyquist method
• Bode plot
• The zero-plot