CHAPTER TWO

TIRES &

WHEELS
Introduction
 Definition of pneumatic Tire

 a hollow band of rubber, often reinforced with fibers of

other material, fitted around the outer edge of a vehicle's
wheel and filled with compressed air (Dictionary
meaning).
 is a flexible structure of the shape of a toroid filled with
compressed air.
 All tires manufactured today are considered Pneumatic
tires.
 Introduction
 What percent of a tire is rubber?
 Composition of tire By weight, give or take 30%
 Raw Rubber
By volume, quite a bite more.
 Steel
 Nylon
 Polyester
 Rayon
 Carbon Black
 Synthetic Rubber
 Fiberglass
 Aramid
 Brass
 Who Invented The First Tire?
 It was invented in 1888, by
John Dunlop.
 This would be the end of the
solid tire.

Why are Tires Black?

To protect the rubber from the harmful UV rays.
A common type of UV stabilizer called a competitive absorber is added
to capture and absorb these harmful UV light wave energy
All tire manufacturers use the same competitive absorber, carbon black.
 The Purpose of Tires
 The tire serves essentially 3 basic functions
 It supports the vertical load, while cushioning road shocks
 It develops longitudinal force for acceleration and braking
 It develops lateral force for cornering (to provide adequate
steering control and direction stability)
 Tire- Parts (External parts)
 Sipes
 allow the blocks to flex. This added
flexibility increases traction by creating
an additional biting edge.
 Grooves
 create voids for better water channeling
on wet road surfaces.
 Blocks
 provides traction.

 Ribs
are the straight-lined row of blocks that create a circumferential contact "band.“


 Shoulders
provide continuous contact with the road while maneuvering
 The Void Ratio is the amount of open space in the tread.
Tread Design
Tire- Parts (Internal)
 Bead
 Liner
 Plies (carcass)
 Belts
 Tread
 Sidewall
Types of Tire Construction
 There are two main types of tires available on the
market today.
1. Bias Ply tires and

2. Radial Ply tires.

 According to air handling
 Tube tires
 used on older vehicles
 Tubeless tires
 seal between bead and rim
 Tubeless tires are the current design
 Bias Ply tires
 A bias ply tire has plies
running at an angle from bead
to bead.
 The cord angle is also
reversed from ply to ply.
 Tread is bonded directly to the
top ply.
 It is Older design
 Disadvantages
 High rolling resistance
 Faster tire wear
Belted Bias Tire
 Stabilizing belt added
 to increase tread stiffness.
 Decreases rolling
resistance
 These belts only lie on
the tread area and not on
the side walls, like cords.
 Radial Ply Tire
 Has plies running straight
across from bead to bead
with stabilizer belts lying
directly beneath the tread.
 This results in the radial
having flexible side wall, but
a stiff tread.
 It has a least amount
of rolling resistance
Radial Ply Tire
 Nowadays, most passenger cars use Radial tires because
 the life of the radial-ply tire could be as long as twice that of the
equivalent bias-ply tire
 of better handling performance [less squirm] and
 greater comfort
 In the absence of a wiping motion between the tire and the road,
the power dissipation of the radial-ply tire could be as low as 60%
of that of the bias-ply tire under similar conditions,
tire
longitudinal
radial
axis. plies sometimes called
the carcass.
 Tire Sidewall information
 1 -Size number.
 2-Maximum allowed inflation pressure.
 3-Type of tire construction.
 4 -M&S denotes a tire for mud and
snow.
 5 -E-Mark is the Europe type approval
mark and number.
 6-US Department of Transport (DOT)
identification numbers.
 7-Country of manufacture.
 8-Manufacturers, brand name, or
commercial name.

The most important information on the sidewall of a tire is the size number,
indicated by 1 .
Tire Dimensions and Marking
 P 215 / 60 R 15 96 H
 Tire types
 The first letter indicates the proper type of car that the tire is made for.
 P -stands for passenger car.
 T -Temporary
 C -Commercial
 ST -for special trailer,
 LT -light truck.
 Tire width.
 This three-number code is the width of the unloaded tire from sidewall to
sidewall measured in [mm].
 215-Tire width [mm]
 175mm, 185, 195, etc…
Tire Dimensions and Marking
 Aspect ratio (Tire Profile) P 215 / 60 R 15 96 H

 This two-number code is the ratio of the tire section height to

tire width, expressed as a percentage
hT
ST  100
wT
 Generally speaking, tire aspect ratios range from 35, for race
car tires, to 75 for tires used on utility vehicles
Tire Dimensions and Marking
 Tire construction type P 215 / 60 R 15 96 H

 R- for a radial construction.

 B for bias belt or bias ply, and
 D for diagonal.
 Rim Diameter ( this is number in inches)
 to indicate diameter of the rim that the tire is
designed to fit onit on.
 13, 14, 15, 16 [in]
 Tire Dimensions and Marking
P 215 / 60 R 15 96 H
 Many tires come with a service description at the end of the tire
size. The service description is made of
 Load rate or load index. (Kgf)
 is a representation of the maximum load each tire is designed to support.
 a two-digit number (load index )
 The load index is generally valid for speeds under 210 km/ h (≈ 130 mi/ h).
 Speed rate (MPH).
 Speed rate indicates the maximum speed that the tire can sustain for a ten
minute endurance without breaking down.
 S= up to 112 MPH T= to 118 MPH H= to 130 MPH V= to 149 MPH
 Z= over 149 MPH
Tire Dimensions and Marking
Calculating tire diameter & radius
 We are able to calculate the overall diameter of a tire using the tire
size numbers. By multiplying the tire width and the aspect ratio, we
get the tire height.

As an example, we use tire number
P 235/75R15
 Width=235mm Aspect ratio= 75% Rim dia= 15 in
 hT = 235 × 75%= 176.25mm ≈ 6.94 in
 Tire’s unloaded diameter D = 2R and radius R.
 D = 2× 6.94 + 15 = 28.88 in ≈ 733.8mm
 R = D/2 = 366.9mm
 Speed rating code
 Two similar tires are coded as
 P 235/70R15H and P 235/70R15 100H.
 Both tires have code H ≡ 210km/ h for speed rating.
 However, the second tire can sustain the coded speed only
when it is loaded less than the specified load index, so it
states 100H ≡ 800 kg @210km/ h.
BMW tire size code
 BMW, a European car, uses the metric system for sizing
its tires.
 As an example, T D230/55ZR390 is a metric tire size
code.
 TD indicates the BMW TD model,
 230 is the section width in [mm],
 55 is the aspect ratio in percent,
 Z is the speed rating, (270 km/h)
 R means radial, and
 390 is the rim diameter in [mm].
U.S. DOT tire identification number
 The US tire identification number is in the format

"DOT DNZE ABCD1309."
 DOT to indicate that the tire meets US federal standards.
 DOT stands for Department of Transportation.
 DN refers to the manufacturer and the factory location at which the tire
was made.
 ZE refers to the specific mold used for forming the tire. It is an internal
factory code and is not usually a useful code for customers.
 The last four numbers, 1309, represents the week and year the tire
was built.
 The other numbers, ABCD, are marketing codes used by the
manufacturer or at the manufacturer’s instruction.
U.S. DOT tire identification number
 DOT DNZE ABCD1309
 DN
 is the plant code for Goodyear-Dunlop Tire located in Wittlich, Germany.
 ZE
 is the tire’s mold size,
 ABCD
 is the compound structure code,
 13
 indicates the 13th week of the year, and
 09
 indicates year 2009.
 So, the tire is manufactured in the 13th week of 2009 at
Goodyear-Dunlop Tire in Wittlich, Germany.
Wheel and Rim
 When a tire is installed on a rim and is inflated, it is called
a wheel.
 A wheel is a combined tire and rim. The rim is the
metallic cylindrical part where the tire is installed.
 It can be made from
 Steel,
 Aluminum and
 Magnesium
Wheel and Rim
A rim has two main parts:
 Flange
 The flange or hub is the ring or
shell on which the tire is mounted.
 Spider
 The spider or center section is the
disc section that is attached to the hub.
 Wheel and Rim
 There are two main Rim shapes:
 drop center rim (DC),
 are symmetric with a well between the bead seats. The
well is built to make mounting and demounting the tire
easy.
 Wide drop center rim (W DC).
 may also come with a hump (W DCH)
 are wider than DC rims
 are built for low aspect ratio tires.
Rim Numbering
 Example- 7 ½ – JJ 15 55 5 – 114.3
 7 1/2 - Rim width [in]
 JJ - Flange shape code
 The flange shape code signifies the tire-side profile of the
rim and can be
 B, C, D, E, F , G, J , J J , JK, and K.
 15 – Rim diameter [in]
 55- Offset [mm]
 Is the distance between the inner plane and the center
plane of the rim.
 5- Number of bolts
 114.3- Pitch circle diameter
 Wear Patterns - Air Pressure
 Under inflation
 wears on outer edges
Wear Patterns - Air Pressure
 Over inflation
 wears in center
 Wear Patterns - Misalignment
 one side Wears
 Due to excessive Camber
 Which means tire is leaning too much to inside or outside of
tread and placing all work on one side of tire
Camber
Wear Patterns - Misalignment
 Feathering (scuffing)
 This is caused by erratic scrubbing against road
when tire is in need of toe-in or toe-out alignment
correction
 Wear Patterns - Poor Suspension or
Tire Balance
 Cupping
 This means the car may need wheels balanced or
possibly new shock absorbers or ball joints or both
Tire defects
TIRES DYNAMICS
 Introduction
 The performance of a vehicle is mainly influenced by the
characteristics of its tires.
 Tires affect a vehicle’s
 Handling,
 Traction,
 Ride comfort, and
 Fuel consumption.
 To understand its importance, it is enough to remember
that a vehicle can maneuver only by longitudinal, vertical,
and lateral force systems generated under the tires.
 Axis/Coordinate System
 Definition of rotations about axes

Follows the “right hand” rule

+Y
X-Axis Longitudinal, + = Forward
Y-Axis Lateral, + = right of center
+X
Z-axis Vertical, + = down
+Z
 SAE Tire Axis System
Wheel
Direction of travel V
torque
Spin axis
X
Rolling Tractive/braking force (Fx)
resistance Y
Z Lateral force (Fy)
Normal
force (Fz)

Wheel Plane- Central plane of tire normal

To the axis of rotation
Wheel Center- intersection of the spin axis and
wheel plane
Center of tire contact- intersection of the wheel plane and
Projection of the spin axis on to the road plane
SAE Tire Axis System
Three forces
Longitudinal force Fx.

Lateral force Fy

Normal force Fz

Three moments,
Overturning moment Mx.

Rolling resistance
Moment My.

Aligning Moment Mz.

 Camber Angle (γ)
The inward or outward tilt of a tire at the top
 Angle of the wheel plane and the vertical
 +ve camber corresponds to the top of the leaned outward from the
wheel

, camber angle
 Slip Angle(α)
 Angle between the direction of wheel heading and the direction of
travel.
 +ve slip angle corresponds to the tire moving to the right as it
advances in the forward direction
 The steer angle is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the
vehicle and the longitudinal plane of the wheel
x


y Wheel velocity
The tire may be steered and have a slip angle
vehicle longitudinal axis.

wheel plane

velocity of wheel center
Axis System-Forces
 Longitudinal Force (Fx)
 The component of the tire force vector in x-direction
 Driving Force
 The longitudinal force resulting from driving torque
application
 Braking Force
 The negative longitudinal force resulting from braking
torque application
 Braking Force Coefficient
 The ratio of the braking force to the vertical load
Axis System-Forces
 Longitudinal Force (Fx)
 Component of force acting on the tire by the road in the plane
of the road and parallel to the intersection of the wheel plane
with the road plane
 The force component in the direction of the wheel travel Sine
component of lateral force plus cosine components of the
longitudinal force is called Tractive Force
Y
F γ
 Tractive Force=(Fy sinγ)+(FxCosα) y1
0

y0 P F

Fx = Fx cosα – Fy sinγ y1
x
α
x1

Fy = Fy cosγ + Fx sinα x
X
0
0
Axis System-Forces
 Lateral Force (Fy)
 Component of the force acting on the tire by the road in
the plane of road and normal to the intersection of wheel
plane with the road plane
 Normal Force ( Fz)
 Component of the force on the tire by the road which is
normal to the plane of road.
 The normal force is –ve in magnitude
 The term vertical load is defined as the negative of the
normal force (thus +ve in magnitude)
Axis System- Moments
 Overturning Moment (Mx)
 Moment acting on the tire by the road in the plane of the road and
parallel to the intersection of wheel plane with the road plane
 It is also called the roll moment, the bank moment, or tilting torque,
 Rolling Resistance Moment (My)
 Moment acting on the tire by the road in the plane of the road and
normal to the intersection of wheel plane with the road plane
 It is also called the pitch moment
 Aligning Moment (Mz)
 Moment acting on the tire by the road which is normal to the plane of
road
 It is also called the yaw moment, self aligning moment, or bore
torque.
Axis System- Moments

Roll Moment

Yaw Moment
Contact Patch
 Tireprint/ Contact patch
 Tire-Road Interaction
 The force on a tire are not applied at a point, but are the result
from normal and shear stress distributed in the contact patch.
 The pressure distribution is under a tire is not uniform but will
vary in the x & Y direction
 Not symmetrical about the y-axis but tends to be higher in the
forward region of contact patch
Tire-Road Interaction
 Because of the tire visco-elasticity deformation
 The vertical pressure shifted forward
 The centroid of the vertical force not pass through
the spin axis
 Therefore generates rolling resistance.
 With the tire rolling on the road
 Tractive force Generated by
 Lateral force Shear Mechanism
 Tire-Road Interaction
 There are 2 main mechanisms responsible for friction
coupling b/n the tire & the road
 Adhesion
 Hysteresis tire

 Adhesion road

 is very similar to the classical notion of sliding friction.

That is molecular bonds are formed and broken through
asperities in the two materials

frictional relative motion

bonds
Tire-Road Interaction
 Hysteresis
 Represent the energy loss in the rubber as it deformed when sliding
over the aggregated in the road
 The road surface irregularities cause a deformation in softer tire
surface by doing work on the material.

 It is not so affected by water on the road surface, thus a better

wet traction is achieved with the tires that have high-hysteresis
rubber in the tread
 Tire Stiffness
 The vertical tire force Fz can be calculated as a linear function
of the normal tire deflection Δz measured at the tire center.
 F = k Δz
z z

 kz is called tire stiffness in the z-direction.

 Similarly, the reaction of a tire to a lateral and a longitudinal
force can be approximated by
 Fx = kxΔx
 Fy = ky Δy
 kx and ky are called tire stiffness in the x and y directions.
 Tire Stiffness
 Calculating the tire stiffness is generally based on
experiment
 They are dependent on
 The tire’s mechanical properties

 Environmental characteristics.

Consider a vertically loaded tire on a stiff and flat ground

The curve can be expressed by a mathematical function

Fz = f (Δz)

Linear approximation for the range of the usual application.

 Tire Stiffness
 The coefficient ∂F/∂(Δz) is the slope of the experimental
stiffness curve at zero and is shown by a stiffness coefficient
kz f
K z  tan   lim
z  0 (z )

 Therefore, the normal tire deflection Δz remains proportional

to the vertical tire force Fz .
 Fz = kz Fz
 The stiffness curve can be influenced by many parameters.
The most effective one is the tire inflation pressure.
 Tire Stiffness
 Lateral and longitudinal force/deflection behavior is also
determined experimentally by applying a force in the
appropriate direction.
 The lateral and longitudinal forces are limited by the sliding
force

The practical part of a tire’s

longitudinal and lateral stiffness
curves is the linear part and may be
estimated by linear equations.
Fx = kxΔx
Fy = ky Δy
 Tire Stiffness
 The coefficients kx and ky are called the tire stiffness in the x
and y directions.
 They are measured by the slope of the experimental stiffness
curves in the (Fx,Δx) and (Fy ,Δy) planes.

f f
K x  lim K y  lim
x  0 ( x ) y  0 ( y )

Generally, a tire is most stiff in the

longitudinal direction and least stiff in
the lateral direction.
kx > k z > k y
 Effective Radius
 The Effective radius of the wheel Rw,
 which is also called a rolling radius, is defined by
Vx
Rw 
w
 where, vx is the forward velocity, and
ωw is the angular velocity of the wheel.
 The effective radius Rw is approximately equal to
 R g  Rh 
Rw  R g   
 3 
 Rw is a number between the unloaded or geometric radius Rg
and the loaded height Rh.
Rh < Rw < Rg
Effective Radius
 Because Rh is a function of tire load Fz ,
 Rh = Rh (Fz)  FZ 
Rh  Rg   
 Kz 
 The vertical stiffness of radial tires is less than non-radial tires under the
same conditions. So, the loaded height of radial tires, R h, is less than the
non-radials. However, the effective radius of radial tires R w, is closer to
their unloaded radius Rg
 As a good estimate,
 for a non-radial tire,
 Rw ≈ 0.96Rg, and Rh ≈ 0.94Rg ,
 for a radial tire,

Example
 Determine the effective & the geometric radius of a tire
 P 235/75R15
 hT = 235 × 75% = 176.25mm ≈ 6.94 in
 2h  15  2 6.94  15
R g  T  14.44 in 366.9 mm
 2  2

 Consider a vehicle with such a tire is traveling at a high speed such as v

= 50m/ s = 180km/ h ≈ 111.8mi/ h. The tire is radial, and therefore the
 Effective tire radius Rw is approximately equal to
 Rw ≈ 0.98Rg ≈ 359.6mm.

r 0.5 Dr  Bt (1  t ) λ-radial deformation coefficient of the tyre

The
End