Formation of a

New Species Dec. 11, 2024

Formation of a
New Species
• Speciation explains diversity of organisms that
inhabit the Earth

• Although all life shares various genetic similarities,

only certain organisms combine genetic information
by sexual reproduction
• produce viable and fertile offspring that can
successfully reproduce

• Such organism members belong to a biological

species

• Macroevolution leads to evolution of new species

when populations diverge from a common ancestor
• for whatever reason, they become
reproductively isolated from original
population
 Formation of a
New Species
• Speciation occurs along two main pathways:
• geographic separation (allopatric speciation)
• through mechanisms that occur within shared habitat
(sympatric speciation)

• In both cases, populations become reproductively isolated

• When populations become geographically isolated, free-

flow of alleles is prevented
• over time (different selective pressures), populations
diverge and become genetically independent species

• Prezygotic barriers: block reproduction prior to

formation of zygote
• Postzygotic barriers: block reproduction after
fertilization occurs
 Formation of a
New Species
• If two populations are separated by a vast ocean, they will not contact each
other to reproduce
• if speciation has occurred, however, they will retain their species identity
(even if brought back together)
• Example(s) in nature:
• Darwin’s finches
• northern and Mexican spotted owls (top image)
• Hawaiian honeycreeper (bottom image)

• Adaptive radiation: occurs when single ancestral species gives rise to many
new species
• may occur when new habitats become available
• can also be seen historically (rise of mammals following extinction of
dinosaurs)

• Other example(s) of prezygotic isolating mechanisms:

• mating seasons
• unique courtship behaviors

• Sometimes mating occurs between two different species

• results in hybrid (mule - a cross between a horse and a donkey)
 Formation of a New Species
• Sympatric speciation: does not require geographic barrier
• explains how many different species can inhabit the same
area

• One form of sympatric speciation begins with serious

chromosomal error during cell division

• Meiosis review:
• sometimes errors occur in separation of chromosomes
or chromatids
• results in gametes with extra chromosomes
(polyploidy)

• This type of speciation is more common in plants than in

animals
• Example(s):
• two groups of cichlid fish in Africa’s Lake Victoria
(have distinct morphologies and diets)
• may be in early stage of sympatric speciation
without polyploidy as genetic differences arise
between the two groups
Formation of a New Species
• Species - group of individual organisms that
interbreed and produce fertile, viable offspring

• One species distinguished from another when (in

nature) it is not possible for matings
between individuals from each species to
produce fertile offspring

• Members of same species share both external and

internal characteristics
• develop from their DNA

• The closer relationship two organisms share, the more

DNA they have in common
• people’s DNA more like their father or mother’s
DNA than their cousin or grandparent’s DNA
 Formation of
a New Species
• Organisms of same species have highest level
of DNA alignment
• share characteristics and behaviors that
lead to successful reproduction

• Species’ appearance can be misleading in

suggesting an ability or inability to mate
• Example(s):
• even though domestic dogs (Canis
lupus familiaris) display phenotypic
differences (size, build, and coat),
most dogs can interbreed and
produce viable puppies that can
mature and sexually reproduce
 Formation of a
New Species
• In other cases, individuals may appear similar
(although they are not members of same species)
• Example(s):
• bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
• African fish eagles (Haliaeetus vocifer)
• both birds and eagles; each belongs
to separate species group

• If humans were to artificially intervene and fertilize

egg of bald eagle with sperm of African fish eagle
(and chick did hatch), that offspring (or hybrid - a
cross between two species) would probably be
infertile
• unable to successfully reproduce after it
reached maturity

• Different species may have different genes that are

active in development
• may not be possible to develop a viable
Formation of a New Species
• Populations of species share gene pool - collection of all variants of
genes in the species
• basis to any changes in a group or population of organisms must
be genetic (only way to share and pass on traits)

• When variations occur within a species, they can only be passed to the
next generation along two main pathways:
• asexual reproduction
• sexual reproduction

• Change will be passed on asexually if reproducing cell possesses the

changed trait
• for changed trait to be passed on by sexual reproduction, a
gamete (sperm or egg cell) must possess
the changed trait

• Sexually-reproducing organisms can experience several genetic

changes in their body cells
• if these changes do not occur in sperm or egg cell, the changed
trait will never reach the next generation
• only heritable traits can evolve

• Result: reproduction plays paramount role for genetic change to take

root in a population or species
• organisms must be able to reproduce with each other to pass
Formation of a New
Species (Speciation)
• Biological definition of species: group of actually
or potentially interbreeding individuals
(works for sexually
reproducing organisms)

• There are exceptions to this rule:

• many species are similar enough that hybrid
offspring are possible
• may often occur in nature

• For majority of species, this rule generally holds

• Presence in nature of hybrids between similar

species suggests that they may have descended
from a single interbreeding species
• speciation process may not yet be complete
 Formation of a
New Species
(Speciation)

• Extraordinary diversity of life on the planet

exists
• must be mechanisms for speciation -
formation of two species from one
original species

• Darwin envisioned this process as a

branching event
• diagrammed process in only illustration
found in On the Origin of Species
Formation of a New Species
(Speciation)
• For speciation to occur, two new populations must be formed
from one original population
• must evolve in way that it becomes impossible for
individuals from the two new populations to interbreed

• Biologists have proposed mechanisms by which this could occur

• fall into two broad categories:
• allopatric speciation (allo- = "other"; -patric =
"homeland") - involves geographic separation of
populations from parent species and subsequent
evolution
• sympatric speciation (sym- = "same"; -patric =
"homeland") - involves speciation occurring within
parent species remaining in one location

• Biologists think of speciation events as the splitting of one

ancestral species into two descendant species
• no reason why there might not be more than two species
formed at one time
• less likely to occur, however
• multiple events can be conceptualized as single splits
occurring close in time
 Formation of a
New Species (Speciation)

• Geographically continuous population has gene pool that is relatively

homogeneous

• Gene flow (movement of alleles across range of the species) is relatively

free
• individuals can move and then mate with individuals in their new
location

• Frequency of allele at one end of a distribution is similar to frequency of

allele at the other end

• When populations become geographically discontinuous, that free-flow of

alleles is prevented
• when that separation lasts for a period of time, the two populations
will evolve along different trajectories

• Allele frequencies at numerous genetic loci gradually become more and

more different as new alleles independently arise by mutation in
each population

• Environmental conditions (climate, resources, predators, and competitors)

for the two populations will differ
• causes natural selection to favor divergent adaptations in each group
Formation of a New Species (Speciation)
• Isolation of populations leading to allopatric speciation
can occur in variety of ways:
• river forming a new branch
• erosion forming a new valley
• group of organisms traveling to a new location
without ability to return
• seeds floating over ocean to an island

• Nature of geographic separation necessary to isolate

populations depends entirely on biology of the
organism and its potential for dispersal
• Example(s):
• if two flying insect populations took up
residence in separate nearby valleys,
chances are individuals from each population
would fly back and forth
(continuing gene flow)
• if two rodent populations became divided by
formation of a new lake, continued gene flow
would be unlikely
• speciation would be more likely
 Formation of a New Species
(Speciation)
• Biologists group allopatric processes into two
categories:
• dispersal - when a few members of a species
move to new geographical area
• vicariance - when a natural situation arises to
physically divide organisms

• Numerous cases of allopatric speciation taking

place have been documented
• Example(s):
• along west coast of the United States, two
separate sub-species of spotted owls exist
• northern spotted owl has genetic and
phenotypic differences from its close
relative, Mexican spotted owl (lives in
south)
 Formation of a
New Species
(Speciation)
• Scientists have also found that the farther the distance
between two groups that once were the same species, the
more likely it is that speciation will occur

• Seems logical: as distance increases, various environmental

factors would likely have less in common than locations in
close proximity
• Example(s):
• consider the two owls
• in the north, climate is cooler than in the south
• types of organisms in each ecosystem differ;
behaviors and habits as well
• hunting habits and prey choices of southern
owls vary from northern owls

• these variances can lead to evolved differences in

the owls
• speciation likely will occur
Formation of a New Species (Speciation)
• In some cases, population of one species disperses throughout
an area
• each population finds a distinct niche or isolated habitat
• over time, varied demands of their new lifestyles lead to
multiple speciation events originating from a single
species

• Known as adaptive radiation

• many adaptations evolve from single point of origin
• causes species to radiate into several new ones

• Island archipelagos (like Hawaiian Islands) provide an ideal

context for adaptive radiation events
• water surrounds each island which leads to geographical
isolation for many organisms
• Example(s) of adaptive radiation:
• Hawaiian honeycreeper
• from single species (founder species) numerous
species have evolved (notice differences in
species’ beaks)
 Formation of a
New Species
(Speciation)
• Evolution (in response to natural selection
based on specific food sources in each new
habitat) led to evolution of different beak suited
to specific food source:
• seed-eating birds: thicker, stronger beak;
suited to break hard nuts
• nectar-eating birds: long beaks to dip into
flowers to reach nectar
• insect-eating birds: beaks like swords;
appropriate for stabbing and impaling
insects

• Darwin’s finches also show adaptive radiation in

archipelago
 Formation of a New Species
(Speciation)
• Divergence can occur if no physical barriers are in place to separate
individuals who continue to live and reproduce in same habitat

• Process of speciation within same space - sympatric speciation

• prefix “sym” means same; “sympatric” means “same
homeland”
• contrast to “allopatric” meaning “other homeland”

• Number of mechanisms for sympatric speciation have been proposed

and studied

• One form of sympatric speciation can begin with serious

chromosomal error during cell division
• in normal cell division event, chromosomes replicate, pair up,
and then separate
• each new cell has same number of chromosomes

• sometimes the pairs separate, however

• end cell product has extra sets of chromosomes; condition
called polyploidy
 Formation of a
New Species
(Speciation)
• Polyploidy - condition in which cell (or organism) has an extra
set (or sets) of chromosomes

• Two main types of polyploidy that can lead to reproductive

isolation of an individual in polyploidy state:
• reproductive isolation - inability to interbreed
• 1st Type
• sometimes, polyploid individual will have two or more
complete sets of chromosomes from its own species
• condition called autopolyploidy
• prefix “auto-” means “self”; term means
multiple chromosomes from one’s own
species

• polyploidy results from error in meiosis in which

all chromosomes move into one cell instead of
separating
 Formation of a New Species (Speciation)
• Example(s):
• plant species with 2n = 6
• produces autopolyploid gametes that are also diploid
• 2n = 6 when they should be n = 3

• gametes now have twice as many chromosomes as

they should have
• new gametes will be incompatible with normal
gametes produced by this plant
species

• could either self-pollinate or reproduce with other

autopolyploid plants with gametes having the same
diploid number, however

• In this way, sympatric speciation can occur quickly by

forming offspring with 4n (tetraploid)
• these individuals would immediately be able to
reproduce only with those of this new kind
• not with those of ancestral species
 • 2nd Type
• other form of polyploidy occurs when individuals of two different
Formation of a species reproduce to form a viable offspring
• known as allopolyploid
New Species • prefix “allo-” means “other”; allopolyploid occurs when
gametes from two different species combine

(Speciation) • Takes two generations (or two reproductive acts) before viable fertile
hybrid results
 Formation of a
New Species
(Speciation)
• Cultivated forms of wheat, cotton, and tobacco
plants are all allopolyploids

• Although polyploidy occurs occasionally in

animals, it takes place most commonly in plants
• animals with any types of chromosomal
aberrations described here unlikely to survive
and produce normal offspring

• Scientists have discovered more than half of all

plant species studied relate back to species
evolved through polyploidy
• with such high rate of polyploidy in plants,
some hypothesize that this mechanism takes
place more as adaptation than as error
 Formation of a New Species
(Reporductive Isolation)

• Given enough time, genetic and phenotypic divergence between

populations will affect characters that influence reproduction:
• if individuals of the two populations were brought together,
mating would be less likely
• if mating occurred, offspring would be non-viable or infertile

• Many types of diverging characters may affect reproductive

isolation (inability to interbreed) of the two populations

• Reproductive isolation can take place in variety of ways

• Organized into two groups:

• prezygotic barriers
• postzygotic barriers
 Formation of a New Species
(Reproductive Isolation)
• Review:
• zygote - fertilized egg; first cell of the development of an
organism that reproduces sexually

• Prezygotic barrier - mechanism that blocks reproduction from

taking place
• includes barriers that prevent fertilization when organisms
attempt reproduction

• Postzygotic barrier - occurs after zygote formation

• includes organisms that don’t survive embryonic stage
and those that are born sterile

• Some types of prezygotic barriers prevent reproduction entirely

• Many organisms only reproduce at certain times of the year

(often just annually)
• differences in breeding schedules (temporal isolation)
can act as form of
reproductive isolation
• Example(s):
• two species of frogs inhabit same area
• one reproduces from January to March
 Formation of a New Species
(Reproductive Isolation)

• In some cases, populations of a species move (or are

moved) to a new habitat
• take up residence in place that no longer overlaps
with the other populations of same species
• known as habitat isolation

• Reproduction with parent species ceases (stops)

• new group exists that is now reproductively and
genetically independent
• Example(s):
• cricket population divided after a flood; could
no longer interact with each other
• over time, forces of natural selection,
mutation, and genetic drift will
likely result in divergence of the
two groups
Formation of a New Species
(Reproductive Isolation)

• Behavioral isolation - occurs when presence/absence of a

specific behavior prevents reproduction from taking place
• Example(s):
• male fireflies use specific light patterns to attract
females
• various species of fireflies display their lights
differently
• if male of one species tried to attract female
of another, she would not recognize the light
pattern and would not mate with
the male

• Other prezygotic barriers work when differences in their

gamete cells (eggs and sperm) prevent fertilization from
taking place
• known as gametic barrier

• Closely related organisms try to mate, but their

reproductive structures simply do not fit together
• Example(s):
• damselfly males and females of different species
have differently shaped reproductive organs
Formation of a New Species (Reproductive
Isolation)
• In plants, certain structures aimed to attract one type of
pollinator simultaneously prevent different pollinator from
accessing the pollen

• Tunnel through which an animal must access nectar can

vary widely in length and diameter
• prevents plant from being cross-pollinated with a
different species

• When fertilization takes place and a zygote forms,

postzygotic barriers can prevent reproduction
• hybrid individuals (in many cases) cannot form
normally in the womb
• do not survive past embryonic stages
• known as hybrid inviability (hybrid organisms
simply are not viable)

• In another postzygotic situation, reproduction leads to

birth and growth of a hybrid that is sterile; unable to
reproduce offspring of their own
• known as hybrid sterility
Formation of a New Species
• Sympatric speciation may also take place in ways other than polyploidy
• Example(s):
• consider species of fish that lives in a lake
• as the population grows, competition for food also grows

• under pressure to find food, suppose that group of these fish had
genetic flexibility to discover and feed off another
resource (unused by the other
fish)
• new food source found at different depth of the lake

• over time, those feeding on second food source would interact

more with each other than the other fish
• would breed together as result

• offspring of these fish would likely behave as their parents

• feed and live in same area; keeping separate from original
population

• if this group of fish continued to remain separate from the first population,
 Formation of a
New Species
• Scenario does play out in nature; as do others that lead to
reproductive isolation
• one such location: Lake Victoria in Africa
• famous for its sympatric speciation of cichlid fish

• Researchers have found hundreds of sympatric speciation

events in these fish
• not only happened in great number, but also over a
short period of time

• Cichlid fish population in Nicaragua is another scenario

• two types of cichlids live in the same geographic
location but have come to have different
morphologies
• allows them to eat various food sources
Practice Module Module 18.2: Formation of a New Species