RESEARCH

METHODOLOGIES
AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE
Academic year 2024 – 2025
Chapter 2: RESEARCH
PROCESSES
This Chapter covers the following contents:
2.1. Research design
2.1.1. Research objectives
2.1.2. Research questions
2.1.3. Research participants
2.1.4. Research instruments
2.1.5. Research bias
2.2. Literature review
2.2.1. Aims
2.2.2. Relevant steps
2.3. Data collection
2.3.1. What is sampling?
2.3.2. Sampling techniques
Chapter 2: RESEARCH
PROCESSES
2.1. Research design
Research design is a critical component of any study as it
provides a structured framework for conducting the research.
It serves as a blueprint that guides the entire research
process, ensuring that the study is conducted systematically,
scientifically, and efficiently.
It also ensures that the target study conforms soundly to
the six Research Principles of Practicality, Connectivity,
Transparency, Logic, Falsifiability, and Publicity
Research design
 Providing a clear research/theoretical framework
 Defining the research scope and boundaries
 Ensuring the validity and reliability of data
 Facilitating accurate data collection and analysis
 Enhancing objectivity and reducing bias
 Allowing for replication and verification
2.1.1. Research objectives
Research objectives are essential as they define the specific goals
that the study aims to achieve. These objectives guide the research
process, determining the methodology, data collection techniques, and
analysis methods. Clear research objectives ensure that the study
remains focused and aligned with the intended research questions.
Thus, research objectives should be:
 Clear, providing clarity and direction for the study,
 Specific, establishing a framework for data collection and analysis.
 Significant, ensuring that the study remains relevant and meaningful.
 Measurable, facilitating the evaluation of findings and conclusions
Research objectives
(1)General objective: This refers to the overarching aim of the
study. It broadly describes what the research seeks to
accomplish. This general objective is commonly indicated
by the title of a study.

(2)Specific objectives: These break down the general objective

into smaller, measurable components. Each specific
objective addresses a particular aspect/point of the research
problem/issue and helps guide the data collection and
analysis process.
Research objectives
Example 1: Examining achievements in English learning at high
school and their impact on university choice
 To analyze how English learning achievements at the high
school level influence students’ decision to choose an
English major at university.
 To assess whether high school English proficiency correlates
with university entrance scores for English-related programs.
 To examine the role of English proficiency tests, and grades
in shaping students’ decisions.
 To understand students' perceptions of English learning and
its impact on their academic aspirations.
 Example 2: Examining motivation for English learning and
its impact on attitudes toward the English language
 To identify intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors
influencing English language learning.
 To investigate the relationship between intrinsic/extrinsic
motivation and students’ perceptions of English as a
language.
 To explore whether higher motivation levels lead to greater
enjoyment and engagement in English learning.
 To explore the relationship between motivation types and
perceptions of English as a global language.
 Example 3: Studying the number of hours per day for
self-learning English and its impact on English GPA
 To determine the average number of hours that students
spend on structured self-learning English daily.
 To examine the correlation between structured self-learning
hours and English GPA.
 To analyze whether structured self-learning techniques
result in better English language proficiency.
 To explore effective self-learning strategies that contribute
to academic improvement in English.
 Example 4: How good English pronunciation impacts
students’ confidence in English speaking
 To assess students' pronunciation skills and their confidence
levels in speaking English.
 To assess whether improved pronunciation contributes to
higher confidence levels in spoken English.
 To investigate students’ self-perceived fluency based on
pronunciation training.
 To identify effective pronunciation training methods that
enhance students' confidence.
 Example 5: How the number of students per class impacts
the quality of teaching
 To examine the effects of class size on teacher-student
interaction and instructional quality.
 To explore whether smaller class sizes lead to better
language acquisition outcomes.
 To examine the relationship between student-to-teacher
ratio and instructional effectiveness.
 To identify optimal class sizes for enhancing student
engagement and learning outcomes.
2.1.2. Research questions:
Specific questions should be based on specific objectives to create an objective-
question alignment. Thus, for Example (1) drawing from its specific objectives:
- To analyze how English learning achievements at the high school level influence
students’ decision to choose an English major at university.
- To assess whether high school English proficiency correlates with university entrance
scores for English-related programs.
- To examine the role of English proficiency tests, and grades in shaping students’
decisions.
- To understand students' perceptions of English learning and its impact on their academic
aspirations.
We could raise the corresponding questions as follows:
(1) How do high school English achievements influence students’ choice of an English
major at university?
(2) How much does high school English proficiency correlate with university entrance
scores for English-related programs?
(3) How do extracurricular English activities (e.g., debate, writing competitions) impact
students’ university major selection?
(4) Do students with higher English grades in high school have a stronger inclination
toward English-related university programs?
2.1.3. Research instruments:
Research instruments are the tools used to collect data. The
choice of research instruments depends on the nature of the
study and the type of data required. This section discusses
various data collection instruments commonly used in research
with a specific reference to EFL education.

Structured questionnaire uses a pre-defined set of

standardized questions, including close-ended questions
(multiple-choice, Likert scale, etc.).

The results from structured questionnaire are easy to analyze

using statistical tools, ensuring consistency across responses,
and faster to complete for respondents. Yet, it limits respondents’
ability to elaborate, thus may not capture deep insights.
Section 1: High School English Learning Achievements
1. My high school English courses provided me with strong language skills
(reading, writing, speaking, and listening).
☐ - Strongly Disagree ☐ - Disagree ☐ - Neutral ☐ - Agree ☐ - Strongly
Agree
2. My English teachers effectively helped me improve my proficiency in the
language.
☐ - Strongly Disagree ☐ - Disagree ☐ - Neutral ☐ - Agree ☐ - Strongly
Agree
3. I consistently achieved high scores in English exams and assessments.
☐ - Strongly Disagree ☐ - Disagree ☐ - Neutral ☐ - Agree ☐ - Strongly
Agree
4. Participating in English-related extracurricular activities (e.g., debate club,
English competitions) significantly improved my English skills.
☐ - Strongly Disagree ☐ - Disagree ☐ - Neutral ☐ - Agree ☐ - Strongly
Agree
5. My confidence in using English has increased due to my high school education.
☐ - Strongly Disagree ☐ - Disagree ☐ - Neutral ☐ - Agree ☐ - Strongly
Agree
A- Strongly Disagree, B-Disagree, C – Neutral, D- Agree, E -Strongly Agree

Section 1: High School English Learning A B C D E

Achievements
1. My high school English courses provided me
with strong language skills (reading, writing,
speaking, and listening).
2. My English teachers effectively helped me
improve my proficiency in the language.
3. I consistently achieved high scores in English
exams and assessments.
4. Participating in English-related extracurricular
activities (e.g., debate club, English competitions)
significantly improved my English skills.
.

5. My confidence in using English has increased

due to my high school education
Interview surveys
An interview survey is a qualitative or mixed-method research
technique where we collect data through structured, semi-
structured, or unstructured interviews. This method is particularly
useful for gaining deeper insights into participants' experiences,
motivations, attitudes, preferences, and opinions.
Interviews could be conducted in the forms of either individual
participants or focus groups of participants (between 3 – 10).
The advantages of this technique are: (i) provides rich,
detailed insights into participants' experiences; (ii) allows us to
clarify responses and ask follow-up questions; (iii) helps explore
motivations and attitudes in depth.
Its disadvantages are (i) time-consuming and labor-intensive;
(ii) potential for interviewer bias in phrasing or interpretation; (iii)
participants may hesitate to share honest opinions.
Interview surveys
1. Structured Interviews
o Predefined, standardized questions
o No deviation in question order or wording
o Suitable for quantitative or mixed-method research
o Example: “How many hours per day do you spend on self-learning
English?”
2. Semi-Structured Interviews
o Combination of fixed questions and open-ended follow-ups
o Allows for deeper exploration of responses
o Common in qualitative research
o Example: “What motivates you to learn English outside of school? Can you
describe your study habits?”
3. Unstructured Interviews
o Open-ended, conversational approach
o Interviewer adapts based on responses
o Best for exploratory research
o Example: “Tell me about your experience with learning English and how it
has impacted your studies.”
Observational surveys
An observational survey is a research method, where we
systematically observe and record behaviors, actions, or events
without directly interacting with participants. This method is
useful for studying natural behaviors, identifying patterns, and
minimizing response bias.
The key features are:
- Data is collected through direct observation rather than self-
reported responses.
- Participants may or may not be aware they are being observed.
- Can be qualitative (descriptive observations) or quantitative
(numerical counts of behaviors).
- Often used in social sciences, education, psychology, and
market research.
Test instruments
Tests are used to measure such as language proficiency,
vocabulary retention, listening/reading comprehension, and
grammar skills.
 Standardized tests (e.g., TOEFL, IELTS) – Measure
language proficiency in controlled settings.
 Pre-tests & post-tests – Assess knowledge before and after
an intervention.
 Cloze tests – Assess reading comprehension by removing
words from a passage.
 Dictation tests – Measure listening comprehension and
spelling.
 Translation tests – Evaluate comprehension and written
language production.
 Oral/Spoken tests - Measure listening comprehension &
speaking competence
2.1.4. Research bias
Bias (Nikolopoulou, 2024; Warje, 2024) is a systematic
error in thinking that deviates from rational judgment,
occurring when the brain attempts to simplify information
processing and interpretation. This concept dates back to
Plato, one of the most influential thinkers in Greek
philosophy, being adamant that our perception of reality is
often inaccurate and that our subjective understanding of the
world is influenced by common beliefs or popular opinion.

When it comes to research, biases occur when systematic

errors affect the validity and reliability of a study. Biases can
distort findings, leading to inaccurate conclusions.
Selection bias
This bias occurs when the sample is not really
representative of the target population.
In Example (1), If only top-achieving students
are surveyed, results may not reflect the broader
high school population.
•In Example (5), If only small-sized classes in
elite schools are examined, results may not
generalize to public schools with larger classes.
Confirmation bias
It occurs when we analyze and interpret data in a way that
confirms our pre-existing beliefs. It can lead to poor decision-
making as it distorts the reality from which we draw evidence.
When observed under experimental conditions, assigned
decision-makers have a tendency to actively seek and assign
greater value to information that confirms their existing beliefs
(Ling, 2020; Pilat & Sekoul, 2021).

In Example (2), If we believe motivation is always high in

students who enjoy English, we may overlook cases where
motivation is low despite interest in English.
• In Example (4), If we assume that pronunciation always
boosts confidence, we may downplay cases where students are
confident despite poor pronunciation.
Social desirability bias
It occurs when participants provide responses they
believe are socially acceptable rather than truthful
answers. This bias can include self-deceptive
enhancement, which reflects the tendency to give
positively biased self-reports, as well as impression
management, which reflects the tendency to
intentionally falsify responses to create a socially
desirable image (Gower et al., 2022).
In Example (3), Students may overreport their self-
learning hours (say more hours than they actually do)
to appear more diligent.
In Example (4), Students may overrate their
confidence in speaking English to seem more
competent.
Measurement bias
It occurs when data collection instruments
introduce errors (French et al., 2021). If
measurement impacts outcomes, it will produce
greater bias.
In Example (1), If GPA is used as the sole
measure of achievement in English, it may not
reflect actual proficiency (e.g., speaking ability).
In Example (3), If self-reported study hours are
used instead of a time-tracking method, data may be
unreliable.
Hawthorne effect bias
The Hawthorne effect (McCambridge, et al., 2014;
Sujatha et al., 2019) occurs when people tend to modify their
behavior simply because they are aware that they are being
observed. The effect gets its name from one of the most
famous industrial history experiments at Western Electric’s
factory in the Hawthorne suburb of Chicago in the late 1920s
and early 1930s.
In Example (2), Students may appear more motivated
when they know their participation is being monitored.
•In Example (5), Teachers may adjust their teaching style
when observed, affecting the study’s results.
Recall bias
Recall bias occurs when people appear to have a
distorted or inaccurate memory of past events,
experiences, or exposures. This occurrence might affect
participants in a study when they are asked to recall
information from memory due to various cognitive
factors, and thus, their responses may not accurately
represent reality.
In Example (3): Students may misremember or
exaggerate how many hours they studied daily.
• In Example (4): Students may struggle to recall how
their confidence in speaking English changed over time.
2.2. Literature Review
We conduct this review in almost all standardized studies
to meet the major aims via the relevant steps as follows:
- Providing background information, which explains key
concepts, theories, and findings related to the research topic.
- Identifying research gaps, showing what is missing or
needs further exploration.
- Justifying the research, demonstrating why the study is
necessary and how it builds on previous work.
- Avoiding duplication, ensuring that the research does not
repeat past studies unnecessarily.
- Developing a theoretical framework, helping in
formulating research questions and hypotheses.
Example (2) Examining motivation for English learning and its impacts on
how people feel about the English language.
Introduction
This literature review explores motivation for English learning
and how it influences attitudes toward the English language.
Understanding motivation is essential in language acquisition, as it
affects students’ engagement, proficiency, and long-term relationship
with the language. This section examines key motivation theories, prior
research on language learning motivation, and gaps in the literature.
Justification for the present study
Motivation plays a fundamental role in language learning, yet
there remains a need for further research on how it shapes learners’ long-
term attitudes toward English. Many studies focus on how motivation
impacts language proficiency, but fewer investigate how different types
of motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) affect how people emotionally
connect with English as a language.
 The present study is particularly relevant due to the following reasons
(i) Growing importance of English: With globalization and the increasing
role of English in education and employment, understanding what drives
learners' motivation is essential for developing effective teaching
methods.
(ii) Shift in learning approaches: Traditional classroom learning is
increasingly complemented by self-directed and digital learning methods.
Investigating how different environments influence motivation and
attitudes can help educators adapt strategies accordingly.
(iii) Cultural and societal influences: Motivation is not solely personal. It
is shaped by cultural perceptions, parental expectations, and societal
attitudes toward English. This study explores these influences to gain a
holistic understanding of how motivation shapes learners' views of the
language.
(iv) Policy and curriculum development: The findings of this study can
inform language education policies and teaching approaches to ensure
students not only achieve proficiency but also develop a positive, long-
term engagement with English.
Theoretical framework
Motivation in Second Language Acquisition
Motivation is a fundamental factor in language learning. Several theories
help explain how motivation influences English learning outcomes and students'
perceptions of the language. Gardner’s Socio-educational model (2006)
emphasizes integrative motivation (desire to connect with the target culture) and
instrumental motivation (practical benefits such as career advancement).
Dörnyei’s L2 motivational self system (2009) introduces three components: (a)
Ideal L2 self: The vision of oneself as a proficient English speaker; (b) Ought-to
L2 self: External pressures to learn English; (c) L2 learning experience: The
learning environment and past experiences.
Meanwhile, Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) distinguishes
between intrinsic motivation (learning for enjoyment) and extrinsic motivation
(learning for rewards or recognition).
The Relationship Between Motivation and Attitudes Toward English
Motivation not only impacts English learning success but also shapes how
learners perceive the language. This is literally because positive motivation leads
to greater engagement and a more favorable attitude toward English (Ushioda,
2011), while negative experiences in learning English (e.g., strict teaching
methods, exam pressure) can create anxiety and resentment (MacIntyre et al.,
1998). Moreover, societal and cultural influences affect motivation, i.e., students
in countries where English is highly valued may develop a stronger positive
attitude (Kormos & Csizér, 2008).
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation in English Learning
Research has consistently shown that intrinsically motivated students perform better
and develop a more positive attitude toward English. Noels et al. (2000) found that
students who learn English for enjoyment and personal growth develop stronger long-
term engagement. Lamb (2012) studied motivation in Indonesia, concluding that students
with an “Ideal L2 self” maintain a more positive perception of English. Ryan and Dörnyei
(2013) found that extrinsically motivated students (e.g., learning for exams or jobs) may
achieve high proficiency but not necessarily develop positive attitudes toward English.

The Role of Learning Environment and Teaching Methods

The way English is taught significantly impacts both motivation and students'
attitudes. Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) found that a supportive, anxiety-free classroom
increases intrinsic motivation. Similarly, Papi and Teimouri (2014) examined how
motivational strategies used by teachers influence students' perceptions of English, where
students who enjoy their English classes tend to view the language more positively.
Likewise, in China Wang et al. (2025) examined the differences in English learning
motivational factors, motivation, and behaviors between students in developed and
underdeveloped cities, and between rural-urban-migrant students and local students
within the same urban school. It showed that rural-urban-migrant students reported higher
levels of negativity across all dimensions surveyed. Moreover, the positive impact of
motivation on English learning behaviors was weaker among rural-urban-migrant
students.
Social and Cultural Influences on Motivation
Social perceptions of English influence motivation and emotional connections to the
language. Kormos and Csizér (2008) found that students in countries where English is a high-
status language have stronger integrative motivation. Wahyuningsih and Mua’dib (2023) also
found that Indonesian parents, particularly mothers have roles in helping the success of their
children’s English learning including facilitating children in accessing English learning
resources, introducing English through daily interaction, facilitating children with English
courses, and accompanying children in learning English at home

Gaps and necessity for further studies

Despite extensive research on motivation in English learning, some areas remain
underexplored: (1) Longitudinal studies tracking how motivation changes over time and
affects lifelong attitudes toward English. (2) The impact of digital learning tools (e.g.,
Duolingo, YouTube, online courses) on English motivation. (3) Cross-cultural comparisons in
motivation for English learning across different regions. (4) The role of peer influence and
social media in shaping students’ attitudes toward English. Thus, further research is needed to
examine modern influences such as technology, social media, and cultural shifts on motivation
and attitudes toward English learning.
This study will contribute by providing insights into how different motivational factors
influence learners' emotional connection to English, offering valuable implications for
educators, policymakers, and language learners alike.
 References
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior.
Springer.
Dewaele, J.-M., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2014). The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign
language classroom. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4(2), 237–274.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (Eds) (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self. Multilingual
Matters.
Gardner, R. C. (2006). The socio-educational model of second language acquisition: A research paradigm.
In S. H. FosterCohen, M. Medved Krajnovic, and J. Mihaljević Djigunović (Eds.), Eurosla yearbook
(pp. 237–260). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Kormos, J., & Csizér, K. (2008). Societal and cultural influences on motivation. Language Teaching
Research, 12(2), 327–356.
Lamb, M. (2012). A self system perspective on young adolescents’ motivation in English language learning.
Language Learning, 62(4), 997–1023.
MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to
communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language
Journal, 82(4), 545–562.
Noels, K. A., Pelletier, L. G., Clément, R., & Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Why are you learning a second
language? Motivational orientations and self-determination theory. Language Learning, 50(1), 57–
85.
Papi, M., & Teimouri, Y. (2014). Language learner motivational types: A cluster analysis study. Studies in
Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4(3), 473–505.
2.1.6. Data Collection
Data collection is a prerequisite step in the research process,
serving as the foundation for analyzing and interpreting findings. It
involves systematically gathering information from various sources to
provide evidence-backed answers to research questions, test research
hypotheses, and support decision-making for post-steps. The accuracy,
reliability, and validity of research depend significantly on the
effectiveness of the data collection process.
What is sampling?
Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals,
units, or observations from a larger population to represent the entire
group in a research study. Instead of collecting data from every
member of the population (which can be impractical, time-consuming,
and costly), we use sampling techniques to gather meaningful insights
efficiently. By selecting the right sampling method, we can obtain
meaningful results without the need for exhaustive data collection
from an entire population.
Sampling techniques
Probability sampling
This technique ensures that every individual in the target population
has a known chance of being selected, increasing the representativeness
of the sample.
a/ Simple random sampling
This sampling is conducted when every member of the population
will have an equal and independent chance of being selected.
How to do it: We assign numbers to all individuals in the population
and use a random number generator or lottery method to pick the
sample.
Example (1): Studying English learning achievements at high school
and their impacts on university choices.
We make a list of all high school students from a specific area,
province, city, or even nationwide and randomly select 1,000 students to
examine how their English achievements influence their university
choices
Example (2): Evaluating the impact of pronunciation on students'
confidence.
b/ Stratified sampling
For this sampling, the target population is divided into subgroups
(strata) based on a chosen characteristic (e.g., proficiency level,
region, gender, etc.).
A random sample is then taken from each subgroup.
Example (1): We divide students into three groups based on
English proficiency (beginner, intermediate, advanced) and randomly
select equal numbers from each group to compare motivation levels.

Example (3): Studying the number of hours per day for self-
learning English and its impacts on English GPA
We divide students into different GPA categories (low, average,
high) and select a proportional number of students from each
category to study their self-learning habits.
c/ Systematic sampling
This is done by arranging the population in an ordered list,
choosing a random starting point, and then selecting every nth person
(e.g., every 10th or 15th student).

Example (3): We select every 5th student from an alphabetical

school enrollment list and survey them about their daily self-learning
hours and English GPA.

Example (5): How does the number of students per class impact
the quality of teaching?

We make a list of all teachers, then select every 10 th teacher and

survey them on their experience with different class sizes.
d/ Cluster sampling
The population is divided into groups (clusters), and a
few entire clusters are randomly selected.
Example (5): Instead of selecting individual students, we
randomly picks 10 entire schools and collects data from all
their teachers and students to study how class size affects
teaching effectiveness.
•Example (2): We randomly select three university
English departments and survey all their students to assess
the relationship between pronunciation skills and speaking
confidence.
Non-probability sampling techniques
These techniques do not give every individual in the target
population an equal chance of selection, but they are useful in
exploratory research or when probability sampling is impractical.
a. Convenience sampling
This sampling chooses participants based on ease of access (e.g.,
students from a nearby school) and collects data from those willing to
participate.
Example (1): We can interview students from our own schools because
they are the most accessible group.

b. Purposive sampling
Example (3): We just select students who consistently score in the top
10% in English and interviews them to understand their study strategies.
c. Snowball sampling
Example (4): We start by interviewing students known for
having good pronunciation and asks them to refer classmates
with different pronunciation skills to participate.
d. Quota sampling
Example (5): We ensure our sample consists of 50% students
from small classes (less than 20 students) and 50% from large
classes (more than 40 students) to compare teaching quality.