CHAPTER 4:
PROPOSITIONS: THE
PRODUCT PF JUDGMENTS
PROPOSITIONS
: THE
PRODUCT OF
JUDGMENTS
A human being does not stop his mental processes after
arriving at an idea: for an idea is the understanding of the
essence of one reality.
Since reality is diverse, man creates many ideas and he
relates these ideas in the process called judgment, which
results into mental statements that are externally
manifested in propositions.
PROPOSITIONS
: THE
PRODUCT OF
JPropositions
U D G M E N and
T S sentences, like words and terms, are
different. from each other. All propositions are sentences
but not all sentences are propositions because some
sentences do not express judgment.
P R O P E RT I E S O F
C AT E G O R I C A L
P R
QUALITO P O S I T I O N S
r e f e r s t o t h e a ffi r m a t i o n o r d e n i a l o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
Y
the two terms or ideas. The quality of a proposition is
seen in the copula.
If the copula expresses that the two ideas are
i d e n t i c a l t h e n t h e q u a l i t y i s s a i d t o b e a ffi r m a t i v e . I f
the copula expresses that the two ideas are not
identical or if the subject denies the predicate, then
the quality of the proposition is negative.
P R O P E RT I E S O F
C AT E G O R I C A L
PROPOSITIONS
QUANTITY
refers to the extension of the subject term of the
proposition. The quantity of the subject term
determines the quantity of the whole proposition but
not the quantity of its predicate.
TYPES OF 1. Particular [Link]
QUANTITIES
3. Singular
W H AT I S PA RT I C U L A R ?
when the subject term involves only
part of the whole extension of the
term.
Example: Some nurses are
patients.
W H AT I S U N I V E R S A L ?
when the subject term involves all
the extension of the term.
Example: All nurses are
caregivers.
W H AT I S S I N G U L A R ?
when the subject term involves the only
extension or a specific extension of the terms.
Example: Wilden is the dean of the
medical college.
(Note: For our purpose, any singular extension
is analogous or equal to universal extension)
TYPES OF
C AT E G O R I C A L
PROPOSITIONS
Quantity and Quality are found together
in categorical propositions. Variations in
these two properties determine the four
types of categorical propositions.
• A - propositions are universal
and affi rmative
Example: All Nurses are
required to take the licensure
exam
E - propositions are universal
and negative
Example: All nurses are not
required to take the licensure
exam.
I - propositions are particular
and affi rmative
Example: Some nurses are
required to take the licensure
exam.
O - propositions are particular
and negative
Example: Some nurses are not
required to take the licensure
exam.
Thus, A and I propositions are affirmative while E and O
propositions are negative. A and E propositions are universal
while 1 and O propositions are particular.
The following illustration will help clarify the distinctions among
the four types of propositions.
T H E Q U A N T I T Y O F T H E P R E D I C AT E
The predicate may have a different quantity than the subject
or the whole proposition. To determine the quantity of the
predicate, one must determine the quality of the proposition.
If the proposition is negative, the quantity of the predicate is
universal unless it is singular.
If the proposition is affirmative, the quantity of the predicate
is usually particular unless in some few instances that it is
singular, which for our purpose, is considered to be universal.
T H E Q U A N T I T Y O F T H E P R E D I C AT E
Generally, A and I propositions have particular predicates
and E
and O propositions have universal predicates.
Examples:
[Link] men are mortals - A
proposition with a particular
Examples:
2. Some men are mortals - I
proposition with a particular
predicate
3. All men are rational animals - A
proposition with a singular predicate
4. One of the patients is a diabetic - I
proposition with a singular predicate
5. All men are not immortal - E
proposition with universal predicate
6. Some men are not immortal - O
proposition with universal predicate
Types of Hypothetical
HYPOTHETICAL Propositions
PROPOSITIONS 1. A conditional
proposition
is a hypothetical
Hypothetical propositions
proposition, which
are propositions that
expresses a necessary
state conditions,
relation between the
causation, or opposition
antecedent or the cause,
between two judgments,
and the consequence or
set of ideas, or
the effect. It is often
statements.
introduced by the "if and
then" clause.
EXAMPLE
If man is a material being
S:
then he is mortal.
Study and you will learn.
Whenever it rains, the ground
is wet.
2.
A disjunctive proposition is a
hypothetical proposition introduced by
either... or and expresses opposition
between the two elements. Thus it
provides alternatives that may be
mutually exclusive to each other.
Types of Disjunctive EXAMPLES:
Proposition
a.
Contradictory 1. Either you are alive or
disjunctive - when dead.
the alternatives
2. One is either healthy
presented are limited
or sick.
to only two. Only one
can be true and only 3. It is either true or
one can be false. Both false.
cannot be true and
both cannot be false at
Types of Disjunctive EXAMPLES:
Proposition
b.
Contrary disjunctive 1. Either he is fat or thin.
- when two alternatives
are presented but a 2. One is either an
third is implied. Both intensive care nurse or a
pediatric nurse.
alternatives may be
false because the
3. It is either yellow or
implied one is true.
green.
Only one can be true of
the two given
Types of Disjunctive EXAMPLES:
Proposition
C.
Sub-contrary 1. Either he is a son or a
disjunctive - when two father.
alternatives are
presented; however, both [Link] is either a nurse or
may be chosen because a doctor.
both could be true. Only
one of the alternatives can
3. They are either guilty
be false.
or they were arrested
A true disjunctive
unjustly.
proposition must present
3.
A conjunctive proposition is a
hypothetical proposition, which contains
alternatives of which only one could be
true but both could be false. The
relationship of the two alternatives must
be mutually exclusive. It is usually
introduced by "Cannot be... At the same
EXAMPLES:
1. One cannot serve God and money at
the same time.
2. He cannot be healthy and unhealthy at
the same time.
3.A person cannot be in the E.R. and in
the O.R. at the
same time.
REDUCTION OF HYPOTHETICAL
PROPOSITION
A hypothetical proposition may be expressed into
the three
different types through the reduction process.
EXAMPLES:
1. If a patient is a male then that person is not
female. - Conditional
A patient is either male or female. - Disjunctive
A patient cannot be both male and female. -
Conjunctive
EXAMPLES:
2. Either she is healthy or she is sick. -
Disjunctive
If she is healthy then she is not sick. -
Conditional
She cannot be healthy and sick at the same time.
- Conjunctive
EXAMPLES:
3. A nurse cannot be both present and absent. -
Conjunctive
If a nurse is present then he is not absent. -
Conditional
A nurse is either present or absent. -
Disjunctive
CHAPTER 4
THE END!
