Selection and evolution

Variation
• Genetic variation caused by:
– Independent assortment
– Crossing over
– Random mating between organisms
– Random fertilization of gametes
– Mutation

• Offsprings have combinations of alleles

(differ from parents)  phenotypic variation
• Mutations produce completely new alleles
(errors in DNA replication  new base sequence
in a gene)
• New allele often recessive

• Mutations that occur in body (somatic) often

have no effect on organism

• Most mutated cells recognized as foreign and

destroyed
• Mutation can affect cell division (can produce
tumour)  escapes immune system

• Tumour cause little harm unless it spreads and

invades other cells (malignant)
• Somatic cell mutations can’t be passed on

• Mutations in ovaries/testes/anthers can be

passed on
• Mutated cell that divides to form gametes
makes the gametes own the mutated gene
• If the mutated gamete fuses to form zygote, the
zygote also owns the mutated gene
• This mutated cell can divide to form new
mutated organism

• Genetic variation can be passed on (different

phenotype)
• Environment  variation in phenotype (can’t be
passed on)
Overproduction
• All organism can increase their populations

• Rabbits produce rapidly if the young rabbits

survived to adulthood
• Australia: rabbits feed on grass  limits grass
for sheep (less predators that feed on rabbits)

• Increased populations will be limited by

environmental factors

• Biotic: predation, competition for food, infection

• Abiotic: water, nutrients
• Example: increased rabbits eat
more food until it runs short
• Increased rabbits allow predators
(foxes) to increase
• Overcrowding: diseases spread

• These factors reduce rabbits

population: lack of food, predators,
disease
• Only some survived to adulthood
and reproduce  slow growth of
population
• Greater environmental factors 
decreased population

• Very low population allows them to

grow again
• Over the time, population oscillate
about a mean level (lemming 3
years)

• Extreme numbers of young

produced compared to young which
will survive to adulthood (many die)
Natural selection
• Factors which determines which organism
survive/die

• Some organism born with extra chances of

survival

• Variation in a population causes some organism

possesses extra feature (advantage) for survival

• Rabbit coat color: agouti (brown) and white

• White is more exposed to predators (less
survival chances)
• White allele remains as rare (why?)
• Predation (foxes)  selection pressure
• This increases chance of some alleles being
passed on, and decrease others

• E.g. alleles for agouti remains in population and

being passed on
• White alleles remain rare and can disappear

• Natural selection  effects of selection pressure

on frequency of alleles in a population

• It raises frequency of alleles with advantage

Evolution
• Usually natural selection maintain the traits
• (stabilizing selection)
• Agouti rabbits survive predation, so the allele
remains

• Sometimes things changes, so the alleles

should adapt

• If new environmental factor/ new allele appears,

then allele frequencies may change (directional
selection)
A new environmental factor
• Ice age, snow all over

• White rabbits have advantage to escape from

predators thus more likely to survive and
reproduce

• They will pass their white coat alleles to

offspring

• Frequency for the white coat allele increases

• Generations to come will have more white coats
than agouti
A new allele
• Mutations usually produce harmful features
• Other mutations may be ‘neutral’

• Some produce useful features

• E.g. mutation in coat color of rabbit produced a

new allele that gives a better camouflaged coat
color (may escape predators better)  selective
advantage
• So the new allele becomes more common
• After many generations, most rabbits will have
the new allele
• EVOLUTION
• Natural selection gives alleles better
chance of survival

• Over generations, populations change

gradually (better adapted)

• E.g. development of antibiotic resistance

in bacteria, industrial melanism in
peppered moth
Antibiotic resistance
• Antibiotic produced by organisms that
inhibit/kill bacteria (won’t harm human
tissue)

• Fungi

• Penicillin (1st AB) used to treat diseases

by bacteria

• Stops cell wall production around

bacteria !!!
• Bacteria that is sensitive to certain AB
gets killed when exposed to that AB

• Some bacteria will gain resistance

(allele)

• E.g. allele in some populations of

bacterium Staphylococcus (an enzyme,
penicillinase produced  inactivates
penicillin)
• Bacteria have 1 single loop of DNA (1
copy of each gene)
• Mutant allele will have immediate effect
on the bacteria’s phenotype

• Bacteria without this allele  killed

• Bacteria with resistance 
survive/reproduce
• SELECTIVE ADVANTAGE
• Bacteria: reproduce rapidly
• E.g. 1 resistant bacterium out of 100
initially, might produce 10000 M offspring
within 24 hours
• E.g. large population of penicillin-
resistant strain of Staphylococcus

• When we use AB, we change

environmental factors which exert
selection pressures on bacteria
• CHALLENGE: find new AB against new
resistant bacteria
• Plasmid: alleles for AB resistance
• Transferred frequently from 1 bacterium
to another (even among different
species)
• POSSIBLE: resistance generated by 1
species transferred to another species

• Digging our own graveyard: more AB

used, the greater the resistance bacteria
will have (evolution)
Industrial melanism
• Changing environmental factors
• Biston betularia (moth)
• Resting under the branches of tree for a day
• Uses camouflage to avoid birds

• Till 1849, all moths had pale wings (dark

markings)
• 1849: black moth was found
• 19th century: black moths increased in certain
areas while in the rest of the country pale wings
(speckled) was still dominant
• Single gene cause the difference
• Black  C (dominant)
• Speckled  c (recessive)

• Frequency of allele C more in industrial

cities
• Non-industrial areas  allele c common

• Selection pressure by birds (predation)

• Areas of unpolluted air, tree covered by
lichen (grey, brown, green)  speckled
moths camouflaged
• Lichens don’t grow in polluted areas

• So trees in polluted areas have darker bark

• Black moths better camouflaged

• Unpolluted areas  light moths survive better

• Polluted areas  black moths survive better

• When the pollution reduced, selective

advantage swings back to light moths

• Although dominant, selection pressure have the

‘power’ to decide who should be expressed
Sickle cell anemia (autosomal
recessive)

• Possession of 2 copies of HS allele

(homozygous) causes SCA (less likely to
survive/reproduce)

• SCA patients died before reaching reproductive

age

• Yet frequency of SCA allele very high in certain

parts
Connection with malaria
• SCA prone area = malaria prone area
• Plasmodium causes malaria by infected
mosquito bites  parasite enter and multiply in
RBC

• Studies: Heterozygous for SCA allele are less

likely to suffer from serious malaria than
homozygous for normal allele

• Heterozygous malaria people only have 1/3

Plasmodium in blood as normal homozygotes
• 2 strong selection pressures acting on these 2
alleles

• Selection against homozygous for SCA HSHS is

very strong (seriously anemic)
• Selection against homozygous for normal allele
HNHN is very strong (more likely to die from
malaria)

• Heterozygous HNHS have strong selective

advantage  do not suffer from SCA and are
much less likely to suffer badly from malaria
• So both alleles remain in populations where
malaria is an important environmental factor
Artificial selection
• Humans do apply selection pressures on
organisms

• Purposely

• Development of modern breeds of cattle

• “Improve” domesticated cattle

• Desired features: docility (easier to control),

fast growing, high milk yields
• Achieved by selective breeding

• Good alleles are chosen and passed to

offspring

• Over many generations, alleles having the

desired features will increase in frequency

• The disadvantageous alleles will be lost entirely

Darwin-Wallace theory of evolution by
natural selection

• Natural selection is the cause for evolution

• Obs 1: organisms produce more offspring than

are needed to replace the parents

• Obs 2: natural populations tend to remain stable

in size over long periods

• Deduction 1: there is competition for survival

• Obs 3: variation among the individuals of a
given species exist

• Deduction 2: best adapted variants  selected

by natural conditions at that time (natural
selection)

• Redefine: selecting particular alleles or groups

of alleles

• Failed to explain how new species were

produced
Species and speciation
• Natural selection is responsible for the different
species of organism. But how?

• Species  no proper definition

• Group of org with similar morphological,

physiological, biochemical and behavioral
features which can interbreed to produce fertile
offspring and are reproductively isolated from
other species
• Donkey + horse = mule (infertile) thus not a
species

• To classify 2 organisms in 1 species, interbreed

them and check the offspring (fertile/not)

• Problems!

• Sometimes DNA sequences are used to decide

New species born!

• Group of interbreeding organisms (same

species) produces another group which cannot
interbreed with the 1st group

• 2 groups  reproductively isolated

• Experiments to decide on species may take

years

• Use present patterns to predict organisms

Allopatric speciation
• Speciation that occurs when 2 populations
separated geographically
• E.g. islands

• Barrier between 2 populations of same species,

preventing from mixing
• E.g. water

• Scenario: 1 species of bird from America to

Hawaii island
• Selection pressure on island different from
America (alleles differ)
• Over time, features differ  cannot interbred
Sympatric speciation
• New species arise without original populations
being separated geographically

• Polyploidy  meiosis goes wrong, gametes with

2n producing 4n zygote (sterile)

• Can be difficult to divide during meiosis I, may

be can grow well and reproduce asexually

• If tetraploid (4n) produce gametes (2n) and

combine with normal gamete (n)  triploid (3n)
[sterile!!! Can’t produce gametes]
• So original 2n plant and 4n plant (from 2n)
cannot interbred successfully (different new
species arose)

• Autopolyploid = all chromosomes from same

species
• Allopolyploid = chromosomes from closely
related species (easier, fertile)

• S.maritima + S.alterniflora = S.townsendii (2n-

sterile)  S.anglica (4n)