Welding is a process that joins materials together by melting them and allowing them to cool.

It's used in many

industries, including construction, manufacturing, and automotive.
Types of welding:
•Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
Also called MIG welding, this process uses a consumable wire electrode to create an arc that melts the metal.
•Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW/TIG)
Also called TIG welding, this process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to create a weld. It's often used
for welding thin, non-ferrous metals like aluminum.
•Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
Also called manual metal arc welding (MMAW), this process uses a consumable flux-coated electrode to create
an arc that melts the metal.
•Other welding processes: Flux-cored wire-arc welding (FCAW), Submerged arc welding (SAW), Plasma arc
welding, Hybrid laser-arc welding, and Underwater welding.
Welding applications: Joining metals in vehicles, Fabricating steel structures, Welding in construction, and
Welding in manufacturing.
 • Brazing is a metal-joining process that uses a filler metal to join two or
Brazing more pieces of metal. The filler metal has a lower melting point than
the base metal.
How it works
[Link] the metal surfaces to be joined
[Link] a flux to remove oxides and promote wetting of the filler metal
[Link] the parts with a small gap between them
[Link] the base metals
[Link] the filler metal to the joint
[Link] without moving the parts
[Link] any flux residue
Safety considerations
•Use exhaust hoods and fans to remove fumes
•Wear a respirator if required
•Be careful not to overheat the assembly if the filler metal contains cadmium
•Know the hazards associated with the flux you're using
Applications
•Brazing can be used to create functional coatings on surfaces
•Brazing can be used to combine materials from different groups
•Brazing can be used to repair cracks in metal
 Ahesive Bonding
• Adhesive bonding is a process that joins two or more parts using an
adhesive that hardens. It's used in many industries, including
aircraft, race cars, and ships.
How it works
[Link] the surfaces to be joined
[Link] the surfaces
[Link] the adhesive
[Link] the adhesive
Benefits of adhesive bonding
•Cost: Adhesive bonding is typically cheaper than mechanical methods
•Weight: Adhesive bonding produces lighter weight products
•Appearance: Adhesives can make joints almost invisible
•Corrosion resistance: Adhesives can reduce or prevent corrosion between different metals
•Bonding difficult materials: Adhesives can bond materials like low surface energy plastics,
oily metal, and silicone rubber
•Other considerations
•The surfaces being joined may be heated, but they are not melted
•The adhesive layer is usually a polymer, either natural or synthetic
•The quality of an adhesive bond is difficult to determine using non-destructive testing
Computer numerical control (CNC) is a manufacturing process that uses computers to
automate machine tools. CNC machines can cut, grind, and drill materials like metal
and plastic.
How does CNC work?
•CNC machines use preprogrammed software to control the movement and precision
of machine tools.
•CNC machines can replicate intricate designs with minimal variation.
•CNC machines can reduce waste, lead times, and ensure efficiency.
•Common CNC machines:
•CNC milling machine: Uses rotating cutting tools to remove material from a
workpiece
•CNC lathe: Cuts workpieces as they are rotated
•CNC router: A computer-controlled cutting machine that can cut wood, composites,
metals, plastics, glass, and foams
•Uses of CNC
•CNC is used in industries like aerospace, medical devices, and automotive.
•CNC can also be used to control nonmachine tools, such as welding, electronic
assembly, and filament-winding machines.
•CNC operators
A CNC operator is a technician who is qualified and trained to operate CNC machines.
They study blueprints, materials, and production plans prior to machining.
3D printing
• 3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three dimensional objects
from a digital file.
• The creation of a 3D printed object is achieved using additive processes. In an additive
process an object is created by laying down successive layers of material until the object is
created. Each of these layers can be seen as a thinly sliced cross-section of the object.
• There is one exception though, and it’s called volumetric 3D printing. With volumetric
printing entire structures can be formed at once without the need for layer-by-layer
fabrication. It’s worth noting, however, that as of now, volumetric technology is primarily
in the research phase.
• 3D printing is the opposite of subtractive manufacturing which is cutting out / hollowing
out a block of material with for instance a milling machine.
• 3D printing enables you to produce complex shapes using less material than traditional
manufacturing methods.
• Examples of 3D Printing
• 3D printing encompasses many forms of technologies and materials as 3D printing is
being used in almost all industries you could think of. It’s important to see it as a
cluster of diverse industries with a myriad of different applications.
• A few examples:
• – consumer products (eyewear, footwear, design, furniture)
• – industrial products (manufacturing tools, prototypes, functional end-use parts)
• – dental products
• – prosthetics
• – architectural scale models & maquettes
• – reconstructing fossils
• – replicating ancient artefacts
• – reconstructing evidence in forensic pathology
• – movie props
• 3D Printing Technologies
• There are three broad types of 3D printing technology; sintering, melting, and
stereolithography.
• Sintering is a technology where the material is heated, but not to the point of
melting, to create high resolution items. Metal powder is used for direct metal
laser sintering while thermoplastic powders are used for selective laser
sintering.
• Melting methods of 3D printing include powder bed fusion, electron beam
melting and direct energy deposition, these use lasers, electric arcs or
electron beams to print objects by melting the materials together at high
temperatures.
• Stereolithography utilises photopolymerization to create parts. This technology
uses the correct light source to interact with the material in a selective manner
to cure and solidify a cross section of the object in thin layers.
• 3D Printing Processes
• Types of 3D printing
• 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, processes have been
categorised into seven groups by ISO/ASTM 52900 additive manufacturing -
general principles - terminology. All forms of 3D printing fall into one of the
following types:
• Binder Jetting
• Direct Energy Deposition
• Material Extrusion
• Material Jetting
• Powder Bed Fusion
• Sheet Lamination
• VAT Polymerization
Smart manufacturing
Smart manufacturing uses advanced technologies to improve manufacturing efficiency, agility, and productivity. It's
also known as Industry 4.0 in Europe.
How it works
•Data collection
Smart manufacturing uses technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT) and sensors to collect data from machines
and assets
•Analytics
Machine learning and AI-powered systems analyze data to identify patterns, predict issues, and improve
performance
•Automation
Robots and automated systems perform tasks like inventory counting and document processing
•Connectivity
Cloud connectivity and the use of blockchain help to create a transparent and secure supply chain
•Benefits
•Reduced costs
•Increased efficiency
•Faster production scaling
•Lower product defects
•Improved supply chain visibility, agility, and resilience
•Reduced reliance on workers
•Improved cybersecurity
Examples of smart manufacturing applications: Predictive maintenance, Anomaly detection, Quality monitoring,
Machine failure prediction, and Production schedule adjustment.
 Unit -II

A boiler converts water into steam using heat energy. This process involves burning fuel in a furnace to create hot
gases, which then heat the water in the boiler.
Steps in a boiler's operation
1.1. Fuel combustion
Fuel like oil, natural gas, or coal is burned in a furnace to create hot gases.
•2. Heat transfer
The hot gases come into contact with water in the boiler, transferring heat energy to the water.
•3. Steam production
The water becomes hot enough to turn into steam.
•4. Steam use
The steam can be used to power turbines for electricity or to heat buildings.
[Link] efficiency
•The efficiency of a boiler is the percentage of heat from the steam compared to the heat supplied by the fuel.
•The efficiency of a boiler depends on the size of the boiler and other factors like incomplete combustion.
•A typical steam boiler has an efficiency of 80–88%.
Boiler types
There are different types of boilers for different purposes. For example, water tube boilers are often used when
large amounts of steam are required.
• Working Principle of Boiler Hot gases are produced by burning fuel in the
furnace. These hot gases are made to come in contact with the water vessel
where the heat transfer takes place between the water and the steam.
Therefore, the basic principle of the boiler is to convert water into steam by
using heat energy.
Refrigration
Refrigeration is the process of cooling a substance, space, or system below its current temperature. It
can also refer to the process of keeping something cold, like food or drink.
How it works
•Refrigeration removes heat from a substance and transfers it to another substance.
•It uses a low boiling refrigerant to move heat from a low temperature level to a high temperature
level.
•Refrigeration systems can use ice, snow, chilled water, or mechanical refrigeration.
•Applications
•Refrigeration is used in air conditioning to produce chilled water.
•It's used to make chilled antifreeze solutions (brines) for icemaking and cold storage.
•Refrigeration is used to keep food and drink fres
• Contrary to popular belief, refrigeration systems are not limited to industrial factories. These systems are also a part of
ordinary households as a subsystem of HVAC. Do you notice every time you step into a building and get relief from the
sweltering heat? It is the Refrigeration system you have to be thankful for.
• Unlike other systems in HVAC, the refrigeration system is simple. Here is a list of basic components included in it.
• Basic Components Of Refrigeration System:
• When it comes to the major components, there are 4 of them in a refrigeration system.
• Compressor
• Evaporator
• Condenser
• The expansion valve (Thermostatic expansion valve)
• Other than these, there are some other components that make up the complete system
• Refrigerant (working fluid in the refrigeration cycle)
• Filters
• Drain pipes
• Refrigerant pipes (conduits to carry refrgerent)
• Evaporator fan
• Condenser fan
• Controls (to control the process)
• Control cables
• Electrical cables
• The 4 Major Components Of Refrigeration System:
• Evaporator
• You should keep in mind about refrigerants is that they can change their physical state. In other words,
depending on the situation, it will be liquid or gas. The liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator at low pressure
with a low temperature. A fan fixed in the place would force the air across the evaporator’s fins to cool down
the present air to absorb heat. This heat is then transferred to the heat pump with the help of liquid refrigerant.
At this point, the refrigerant would become gas. The suction line will then transfer it over to the compressor.
• Compressor
• At this point, the low-pressure vapor is present in the suction line from the evaporator. Now, it needs something
to pull it out from the line. That is the job of the compressor. Once the process is complete, the temperature
and pressure will start to rise. Once that task is complete, the vapor will into the discharge line.
• Condenser
• Now that the refrigerant is in gas, it would change into the liquid again in the condenser. To achieve this result,
the condenser will draw the heat from the refrigerant. This will lower its temperature, allowing it to become
liquid again. The condensation process will continue until the refrigerant retains a little fraction of heat. At that
point, it would go to expansion valve for next step.
• The expansion valve (Thermostatic expansion valve)
• The expansion valve is supposed to generate a pressure drop after refrigerant exits condenser. After the
refrigerant is condensed in the condenser, it goes to expansion valve. In there, refrigerant is exposed to the
dropped pressure. The pressure drop would decrease the temperature of the refrigerant. At that, the refrigerant
would be pumped to the evaporator to continue the cycle.
Air conditioning
• Air conditioning can be essential for home comfort, especially during hot
weather. Understanding how air conditioners work and how to choose an
energy-efficient system can help you save on energy costs and reduce your
carbon footprint.
Importance of Air Conditioning
•
88% of homes in the United States have air conditioning, and 66% have central systems
Widespread Use:

•Energy Consumption: Air conditioners use about 12%

•of the electricity in U.S. households, with costs varying by location. Annually, this adds up to about $29
billion for homeowners.
•Environmental Impact: Air conditioning contributes significantly to carbon dioxide emissions, releasing
over 100 million metric tons annually.
If you're in the market for a new air conditioner, choose one with the ENERGY STAR®
label to optimize electricity savings and reduce your system's carbon footprint.
• Air conditioners operate similarly to refrigerators, transferring heat
from your home’s interior to the outside environment.
[Link]:
1. Evaporator Coil (Indoor Coil): This cold coil absorbs heat from the indoor air.
2. Condenser Coil (Outdoor Coil): This hot coil releases the absorbed heat
outside.
3. Compressor: The electric motor-driven pump circulates refrigerant between
the evaporator and condenser.
[Link]:
1. The refrigerant evaporates inside the evaporator coil, absorbing heat from
the indoor air and cooling your home.
2. The heated refrigerant gas is pumped to the condenser, where it releases
heat to the outside air and reverts to a liquid state.
The unit for measuring the capacity of refrigeration is the ton of refrigeration (TR). It's a unit of power that
measures the rate at which heat is extracted.
Explanation
•1 TR is the amount of heat required to freeze 1 ton (2,000 lbs) of water at 32°F (0°C) in 24 hours
•1 TR is equivalent to 3.5 kilowatts (kW)
•1 TR is also equivalent to 210 kilojoules per minute (kJ/min) or 50 kilocalories per minute (kcal/min)
Refrigrants
•Past Refrigerants: Initially, air conditioners used chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), but these were phased
out due to their harmful effects on the ozone layer.
•Current and Future Refrigerants: Today, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and the latest low-carbon A2L
refrigerants are used, with alternatives like CO2 and ammonia being explored for their environmental b

A refrigerant is a chemical substance that absorbs heat and transfers it to cool air or objects.
Refrigerants are used in air conditioners, refrigerators, and other cooling systems.
Types of refrigerants
•Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Banned due to environmental damage
•Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): An interim replacement for CFCs, but still harmful to the
environment
•Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): A replacement for CFCs and HCFCs
•Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs): A type of refrigerant
Examples of refrigerants
•R-22 (Freon): A commonly used refrigerant for central air conditioning systems
•R-410A (Puron): An environmentally friendly refrigerant used in air conditioning and
refrigeration systems
•R-134a: A refrigerant used in air-conditioned cars and commercial spaces