Central nerve system

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system

Nervous System: CNS + PNS

7 main parts: CNS
1. Spinal cord…
2. Medulla
3. Pons Hindbrain
4. Cerebellum
5. Midbrain
6. Diencephalon
7. Cerebrum Forebrain
Brain:
1. Hindbrain
2. Midbrain
3. Forebrain

• Medulla
• Pons Brain stem
• Midbrain

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 Protection and Nourishment
of the Brain
1. The cranium (skull) encases the brain, and the
vertebral column surrounds the spinal cord.

2. Three protective and nourishing membranes, the

meninges, lie between the bony covering and the
nervous tissue.

3. The brain “floats” in a special cushioning fluid, the

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

4. A highly selective blood–brain barrier limits access of

blood borne materials into the vulnerable brain tissue.
 Three meningeal membranes
• From the outermost to the innermost layer they are
1. The dura mater,
2. The arachnoid mater, and
3. The pia mater
• (Mater means “mother,” indicative of these
membranes’ protective and supportive role.)

• The dura mater is a tough, inelastic covering

 The dura mater

• Th e dura mater is a tough, inelastic covering that

consists of two layers (dura means “tough”).

• Usually, these layers adhere closely, but in some

regions they are separated to form blood filled
cavities, dural sinuses, or in the case of the larger
cavities, venous sinuses.
 Arachnoid mater
• Th e arachnoid mater is a delicate, richly vascularized layer
with a “cobwebby” appearance (arachnoid means
“spiderlike”).

• The space between the arachnoid layer and the underlying

pia mater, the subarachnoid space, is filled with CSF.

• Protrusions of arachnoid tissue, the arachnoid villi,

penetrate through gaps in the overlying dura and project
into the dural sinuses.

• CSF is reabsorbed across the surfaces of these villi into the

 3. Pia mater
• The innermost meningeal layer, the pia mater, is
the most fragile (pia means “gentle”).

• It is highly vascular and closely adheres to the

surfaces of the brain and spinal cord.
 Cerebrospinal fluid
• is a clear, colorless body fluid found in the brain and spinal cord.

• It is produced by the specialised ependymal cells in the choroid

plexuses of the ventricles of the brain, and absorbed in the arachnoid
granulations.

• There is about 500 -600mL is generated every day and at any time
there is about 125ml of CSF

• The major function of CSF is to serve as a shock-absorbing fluid to

prevent the brain from collision with skull.

• The CSF plays an important role in the exchange of materials between

the neural cells and the interstitial fluid surrounding the brain.
 Composition of CSF
• The concentrations of K+, Ca+2, Cl-,HCO3 -, and
glucose are lower in the cerebrospinal fluid, and the
concentration of H+ is higher.

• Only the concentration of Na+ in cerebrospinal

fluid is similar to that in the blood.

• In addition, cerebrospinal fluid normally contains

large amount of water and very little protein and no
blood cells.
 Components of central nervous system

Components of human brain + spinal cord

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Components of human brain and spinal
cord

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

Spinal cord

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 Spinal cord
Receives sensory information from the skin +
joints + muscles + trunk + limbs.
Contains the motor neurons responsible for
both voluntary + reflex movements.
Along its length the spinal cord varies in size
and shape.
Thicker at levels that innervate the arms and
legs.

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17
 Motor Functions of the Spinal Cord
• Without the special neuronal circuits of the cord, even
the most complex motor control systems in the brain
could not cause any purposeful muscle movement.

• The cord gray matter is the integrative area for the

cord reflexes.

• Sensory signals enter the cord almost entirely through

the sensory (posterior) roots.

• After entering the cord, every sensory signal travels

to two separate …local circuit or ascend to the brain
 D o rsalo o t

Dorsal root and dorsal

root ganglia
Neuroscience
IV
Ascending Sensory Tracts

White matter
• Dorsal column
• Lateral column
• Ventral Column
(funiculi)

The major anatomical features of the spinal cord.

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 Types of neuron in spinal cord
1. Anterior Motor Neurons.

• Are a type of the lower motor neuron

• In the anterior horns of the cord gray matter (50 to

100 per cent larger than most of the others.

• They innervate the skeletal muscle fibers.

• The neurons are of two types, alpha motor neurons

and gamma motor neurons.
Contd..,
 The Spinal Cord

Reflex arcs
 A reflex arc is the neural pathway that mediates a reflex action.
 Reflex action is a motor response to sensory stimuli.
 Composed of 5 basic components that include:
1. Sensory receptor – change detectors and generate AP.
2. Sensory neuron – conducts AP to the integrating center.
3. Integration center – integrates and interprets sensory
information and sends FB to effectors.
4. Motor neuron – conducts FB to the effectors.
5. Effector Organs

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 Muscle Stretch Reflex

 The simplest manifestation of muscle spindle

function is the muscle stretch reflex.

 When a skeletal muscle with an intact nerve supply

is stretched, it contracts.

• The sense organ is the muscle spindle.

 Contd..,
• The impulses originating in the spindle are
conducted in the CNS by fast sensory fibers that
pass directly to the motor neurons which supply the
same muscle.

• Thus, this is a monosynaptic pathway that allows a

reflex signal to return with the shortest possible
time delay back to the muscle after excitation of the
spindle.
Contd..,
 POLYSYNAPTIC REFLEXES
• THE WITHDRAWAL REFLEX

• The withdrawal reflex is a typical polysynaptic reflex that

occurs in response to a noxious and usually painful
stimulation of the skin or subcutaneous tissues and muscle.

• The response is flexor muscle contraction and inhibition of

extensor muscles, so that the part stimulated is flexed and
withdrawn from the stimulus.

• When a strong stimulus is applied to a limb, the response

includes not only flexion and withdrawal of that limb but
also extension of the opposite limb.
 Polysynaptic reflex

crossed-extensor reflex
 Ascending Sensory Tracts IV

Organizational principles…

• 1st order neuron: Dorsal root ganglion (spinal ganglion)

• 2nd order neuron: Spinal cord/medulla
• 3rd order neuron: Thalamus/VPLNT
• Destination: Cerebral cortex/postcentral gyrus
(Primary sensory area I )

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 Ascending Sensory Tracts

Organizational principles…
• Name of the tract indicates the origin + destination of its fibers.
• Axons within each tract are grouped according to the body region
innervated.
• Conveys impulses from pain, thermal, tactile, muscle + joint
receptors to the brain/conscious level…
• Exhibit orderly somatotopy/ precise neural map…
• Decussate/cross the midline to the contralateral side…
• Bilateral and symmetrical…

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 IV
Ascending Sensory Tracts
3. Types of sensory pathways

• Three major groups of ascending pathways.

A. Dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway/gracile and cuneate pathway.
o + Trigeminal lemniscal system: discriminative tactile + proprioceptive
sensations.
B. Anterolateral system (spinothalamic tracts).

C. Spinocerebellar pathway

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Neuroscience
IV
Ascending Sensory Tracts
A. Features of the Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal System

• Rapidly conducting system (type I + II fibers, a few synaptic relays).

• A high degree of somatotopic lamination (high degree of localization +
discrimination) (arranged in layers, one for each dermatome).
• Has a high degree of resolution in intensity of discrimination of its
sensations (100 grades).
• Can conduct rapidly repetitive signals (+ vibration sense, high + low
cycles/s).
• Conducts sensations from the ipsilateral side of the body (till caudal
medulla).
• Conscious perception.

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 IV
Ascending Sensory Tracts
Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal Pathway
• Function
 Fine touch/tactile discrimination
 Fine pressure
 Vibrations + positions
 Stereognosis
 Muscle tension
 Proprioception
• Gracile fasciculus
• Cuneate fasciculus 106 nerve fibers/side
• Internal arcuate fibers
>90%
• Medial lemniscus 10%
• A, A thick myelinated fibers
• Reach at conscious level.

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Neuroscience
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Ascending Sensory Tracts

Dorsal-Column Medial-Lemniscus Pathway

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Neuroscience
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Ascending Sensory Tracts

Ascending and descending tracts…

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 Ascending Sensory Tracts IV

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Neuroscience
IV
Ascending Sensory Tracts

B. Anterolateral Systems

Features of the anterolateral system

• Slowly conducting system (A + C fibers, free nerve endings).
• Moderate degree of somatotopic lamination.
(moderate degree of localization + discrimination of its sensations).
• Can not transmit rapidly repetitive signals.
• Conducts sensations from the contralateral side of the body…
• Conscious awareness of pain + temperature.

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Neuroscience
IV
Ascending Sensory Tracts

Anterolateral system…

• A + C fibers.
• Pain, thermal sensations (warmth + cold).
• Crude touch + pressure sensations (nondiscriminative touch).
• Tickle + itch sensations.
• Sexual sensations.

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Ascending Sensory Tracts

Anterolateral Systems

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Neuroscience
IV
Ascending Sensory Tracts
Spinothalamic tract
• Conveys noxious + thermal + visceral information.
a. Anterior spinothalmic tract/Ventral/medial spinothalamic tract
(3 order neurons).
o Crude touch/nondiscriminative touch…crude pressure…
o Tickle
o Itch sensations
b. Lateral spinothalamic tract (pain + temperature, 3 order neurons)
o Slow pain…
o Temperature
o Fast pain…

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Neuroscience
IV
Ascending Sensory Tracts

Ascending + descending tracts…

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Neuroscience
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Ascending Sensory Tracts

Spinothalamic tract…

Origin: neurons in laminae I + V + VII.

o >50% originate from neurons in lamina I

(nociceptors + thermal receptors +
visceral afferents, or itch receptors,
modality-segregated, Aδ or unmyelinated
C fibers).
o Wide-dynamic-range neurons in lamina V.
(tactile + visceral + thermal + noxious stimuli) .
o Neurons in lamina VII…
82%: contralateral sensation
12%: ipsilateral
6% : bilateral sensations

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Neuroscience
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Ascending Sensory Tracts

X-section of the spinal cord…

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Neuroscience
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Ascending Sensory Tracts

Lateral spinothalamic tract

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 Motor function of the cerebral cortex
 Located in the frontal lobe, in front of the central sulcus.
 It is divided in to 3 functional areas
i. The primary motor area (area - 4)
ii. The premotor area (areas - 6, 8, 44 & 45)
iii. The prefrontal motor association area (areas 9-12)
The primary motor cortex
 Location: precentral gyrus in the frontal lobe.
 Body representation: the body is topographically represented in an
inverted (head-down) and crossed (opposite side) manner.
 The face area is bilaterally represented.
 The area of representation is proportional to the degree of fine mov
´t of the part. eg. large areas for heads and muscles of speech and
small area for trunk.

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 Cerebral Cortex

• Parietal lobe
• 43 • 3
• 6 • 4• 1
• 5
Prefrontal lobe
• 8 • 2 • 7
• 9 • 46 • 40
• 39 •
• 10 18
• 44 • 41 42 • 19 • Occipital lobe
• 45
• 12 • 17
• 11 • 47 • 22 • 37
• 38 •
21
• Limbic lobe • 20
• Temporal
lobe 50
 The primary motor cortex
Function of area-4

 Initiation of voluntary, fine, discrete (separate) mov´t of limbs. (eg.

Hands, fingers) on opposite side.

 Facilitation of stretch reflex ie. Facilitation of sk/muscle tone and

tendon jerk.

Effect of lesion to area-4

 Flaccid paralysis in the opposite side of the body.

 Loss of deep and cutaneous reflexes in the opposite side.

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 Somatotopic organization of the motor cortex

 Area of representation is proportional to the degree of fine

movements

Fig. Motor
Homunculus 52
 Motor tracts (descending tracts)
 The descending tracts are divided into two groups:
1. The pyramidal tracts
2. The extra pyramidal tracts

The pyramidal tracts

 Are composed of three tracts of common origin but separate

terminations.
1. The corticonuclear tract: which terminates in the midbrain
and pons
2. The corticobulbar tract: which terminates in the pons and
medulla
3. The corticospinal tract: terminates in the spinal cord

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 Motor Tracts (Descending Tracts) Cont’d…
 Origins of the pyramidal tracts: have 3 origins
1. The primary motor area (30% of the fibers)
2. The premotor areas (30% of the fibers)
3. The somatosensory areas (SI and SII): 40% of the fibers

4. Corticonuclear tract:
Origin: from the frontal eye field area (area-8).
Course: Descend down through the internal capsule to the brainstem.
They terminate in the nuclei of CN: III, IV & VI.
Function:
– Controls voluntary mov´t of the eye towards the desired object.
– Facilitate stretch reflex of the eye mov´t muscle.

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Motor Tracts (Descending Tracts) Cont’d…
2. The corticobulbar tract
Origin: arises from the lower part of motor and sensory area of the
cerebral cortex.
Course: Fibers descend down the internal capsule to the pons &
medulla. They terminate on the nuclei of CN V, VII, IX, X, XI and
XII.
Function: 1. Controls voluntary mov´t of muscles in the head
area
2. Facilitate stretch reflex of this muscles.
3. The cortico-spinal tract
Origin: arises from motor, premotor and somatic sensory cortex.
Course: descend down the internal capsule to the brainstem.
• In the medulla, fibers collect together to form the medullary
pyramid.
• In the lower medulla, pyramidal fibers takes one of the three
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 Motor Tracts (Descending Tracts) Cont’d…
 Cross the opposite side in the motor decussation and descend in
the postrolateral white column as lateral corticospinal tract.
– This represents 90% of the fibers.
– They terminate in the ventral horn cells

 Descend directly in the ventral white column on the same side as

the anterior corticospinal tract.
– Represent 8% of the fibers.
– They cross to the opposite side at the cervical and upper
thoracic segments and terminate at the ventral horn cells.

 Descend directly in the postrolateral white column in the same

side as the uncrossed lateral corticospinal tract.
– These represents 2% of the fibers.
– They terminate on the ventral horn cells of the same side.

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 Function of the pyramidal tract
 The crossed (lateral) corticospinal tract has the following functions.
1. Initiation of fine discrete voluntary movements.
2. Facilitation of lower motor neurons and stretch reflex.
 The uncrossed (lateral & anterior) corticospinal tracts have the
following functions.
1. Provide bilateral innervations of the some muscles (eg. respiratory
muscles and abdominal Muscles).
2. Help recovery of movement after injury of the lateral corticospinal
tract.

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 The Extra pyramidal tracts
•It includes all parts of the brain & brain stem that contribute to motor
control other than pyramidal tracts. …..sub cortical structure

•It includes those fibers in

Basal ganglia
Red nucleus
RF of the brainstem
Vestibular nucleus
 tectum of the midbrain
Inferior olive of medulla

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 Function of Extra pyramidal tracts
1. Controls muscle tone, posture & equilibrium; providing a
suitable background or skill movts controlled by pyramidal
tracts. Both systems produce smooth coordinated voluntary
movement

2. Mediates gross movt of group of muscles. eg. Limb muscles

during walking.

3. Provides an alternative routes for voluntary movt in case of

lesion to the pyramidal tracts.

4. It influences the visceral function through the reticulospinal

tract.

5. It exerts a strong inhibitory effect on the lower motor neurons.

• Lesion leads to muscle rigidity
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Motor functions
Extrapyramidal system VI
Indirect motor pathways to the spinal cord Originate in area 4 and  Lateral pathway:
area 6 and terminate in
medial and lateral areas of Rubrospinal tract
the brain stem.
• Originates in magnocellular
 Medial pathways: portion of the red nucleus.
o Reticulospinal (M+L) • Descends in contralateral
o Vestibulospinal (M+L) dorsolateral column.
o Tectospinal (M+L) • It receives input from the
o Descend in the ventral cortex as well but is
column & terminate in the involved in the control of
ventromedial area of arm and hand movements.
spinal gray matter. • Terminates in dorsolateral
o Receives information area of spinal gray matter.
from the cortex & other
motor centers for the
control of posture and
locomotion.

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

Medulla:
• Resembles that of SC.
• Vital autonomic functions:
digestion + breathing + BP+
HR.
• Taste, hearing + maintenance
of balance + control of neck
and facial muscles.

Pons:
• Ventral: relay information
about movement + sensation
from cerebral hemispheres to
the cerebellum.
• Dorsal: respiration, taste +
sleep.

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

Midbrain:
• Controls sensory + motor
functions (eye movements, co-
ordination of visual + auditory
reflexes…)
• Links the motor system (BG,
cerebellum, cerebral cortex).
Brain stem:
• Med. oblongata + pons + midbrain.
• Receives sensory information from
the skin and muscles of the head.
• Provides motor control for the head
musculature.
• Levels of arousal + awareness thru
RF (SC  Brain).
• Cranial nerve nuclei (+ hearing +
balance + taste…)
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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

Cerebellum:
• Maintaining posture + coordinating
head, eye, and arm movements.
• Involved in minute regulation of
motor output + learning motor
skills.
• Involved in language and other
cognitive functions.
• Receives information from SC +
vestibular organs + motor and
sensory information from various
areas of the cerebral cortex via the
pontine nuclei.

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

Diencephalon:
• Thalamus (‘secretary’ of CC).
o Pathway of sensory information from the
periphery (except olfaction).
o Determines which sensory information reaches
the neocortex.
o Interconnects the cerebellum + basal ganglia
with regions of the cerebral cortex concerned
with movement and cognition…

• Hypothalamus
o autonomic + endocrine + visceral &
homeostatic functions.
o Essential component of the motivational
systems of the brain.
o Regulates circadian rhythms (supra-
chiasmatic nucleus).

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

Cerebrum:

2 cerebral hemispheres:
• Cerebral cortex
• Basal ganglia
• Hippocampus
• Amygdaloid nuclei

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

 Corpus callosum…
 Cingulate cortex: regulation of
emotion and
cognition
 Insular cortex/insula: emotion
+ regulation of homeostasis
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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

Basal ganglia (motor performance)

• Basal ganglia have five major functional subcomponents:

o Caudate nucleus
o Putamen
o Globus pallidus (GPe + GPi)
o Subthalamic nucleus
o Substantia nigra
• Neurons in the basal ganglia regulate movement and contribute to
certain cognitive functions/learning of motor skills.
• Basal ganglia receive input from all parts of the cerebral cortex
but send their output largely through the thalamus to the frontal
lobe.

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

Hippocampal formation

 Includes:
• Hippocampus
• Dentate gyrus
• Subiculum.
o Responsible for the formation of
long-term memories about our
daily experiences/+ episodic
memories
o Damage to the hippocampus
interferes with people’s ability to
form new memories but does not
significantly impair the ability to
retrieve old memories.

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

Amygdala (Autonomic + endocrine responses of emotional states…)

• Lies just rostral to the hippocampus, is involved in analyzing the emotional

or motivational significance of sensory stimuli.

• It receives input directly from the major sensory systems.

• Neurons in the amygdala project to the neocortex, basal ganglia,

hippocampus, and a variety of subcortical structures including the
hypothalamus.

• Projections to the brain stem can modulate somatic + visceral components

of emotion (amygdala mediates the unconscious responses to danger—
changes in heart rate, respiration, and pupillary dilation—as well as the
conscious emotional perception of fear).

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

Cerebral cortex

• The highest center of the NS.

• Perceptions of fine sensations + initiation of voluntary movements.
• Higher intellectual functions:
o Learning + memory
o Speech + language
o Judgment…
o Intelligence…
o Planning…
o …

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system III

• Covers the entire surface of the brain (deep nuclei).

• Highly folded, forming gyri and sulci (SA  number of cortical
neurons capacity for processing information…).
• 2 hemispheres (rt. + lt.): each cerebral hemisphere: 5 lobes:
o Frontal lobe
o Parietal
o Temporal
o Occipital
o Limbic
(Cingulate gyrus, insular cortex)

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Neuroscience
Organization of the central nervous system

Cerebral cortex
Frontal lobe:
• Short-term memory +…
• Planning future actions
• Control of movement…
Parietal lobe:
• Somatic sensation…
• Forming body image
relating to extrapersonal
space…
Occipital lobe: vision…
Temporal lobe: hearing…
Limbic lobe : hippocampus, learning + memory
Amygdaloid nuclei, emotion…

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