CHAPTER 2:

SUBSTRUCTURE
Part 1
2.1 Building foundation: types and functions

2.1.1 Shallow Foundation

- strip footings , pad footing, raft foundation.

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 Wind load

Wind load

Dead load

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 What is Substructure?
 FOUNDATION is a part of SUBSTRUCTURE components

 foundation is the lowest portion of the building structure.

Extends from the bearing surface to the main structure.)

 Usually located below the ground level.

 A foundation is a part of the structure which is in direct contact

with the ground to which the loads are transmitted.

 Foundations can be located at; below ground, at ground level,

or above ground level.

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 Shallow Foundation
Deep Foundation
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 Main functions of the foundations
 To supports the weight of
structure and distribute the
load of the structure over a
greater area.
 To transmit the load
uniformly under the
structure.
 Anchors the structure to the
earth, providing a firm, level
and strong base over which
the superstructure may be
constructed.

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 Main functions of the foundations
 To avoid any settlement or
other movement that can
cause damage to any part of
the building (a stable
foundation should bear the
loads without sinking or
settling more than an inch at
the most).
 To increase the stability of the
structure by preventing its
tilting or overturning against
winds, earthquakes and
uneven distribution of live
load (Lateral Stability).
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 Selection Criteria
 Loading of the building,
big load need big
foundation such as raft
foundation or piling.
 Types of soil such as
peat soil prefer piling or
deep foundation
 Most economical but
capable to support
numbers of building or
storey (pad footing or
pilling?)
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 Selection Criteria
 The loads that must be transferred from the structure to the soil
strata supporting it. This also should evaluate the ability of the
soil to support the ultimate loads.
 The capability of the structure that will safely transfer the loads
from the superstructure to the foundation bed.
 The possibility and extent of settlement of the soil due to the
presence of mines and quarries in the vicinity.
 The possibility of the underground water has sulfates or other
salts that can degrade the foundation materials.

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in
the Foundation Design
 Soil Investigation (S.I) is needed to determine the
subsoil includes the soil type, strength, soil
structure, moisture conditions and the presence of
roots.
 Purpose of S.I-determine the bearing capacity,
seasonal volume changes and other possible
ground movements.
 Common methods obtaining soil samples;
 trial pits,
 boreholes,
 window sampling and
 dynamic probe test.

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in
the Foundation Design
For more safety precaution use factor of
safety FOS = 3
Increase number of bore hole or
sufficient number of borehole so that the
result of the report is more accurate.
Choose the critical point load for borehole
Every end of the building
Supervise the S.I properly make sure no
mistake

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in
the Foundation Design
For the safety of the foundation design use
the lowest of bearing capacity value.
The engineer must have good enough data
for the S.I such as previous soil report,
cutting or filling area.
Engineer also must make sure the original
ground level and purposed level or
formation level while designing the
foundation.

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in
the Foundation Design
The correct parameter is
important to prevent from
foundation failure that may
occur causing building collapse.
It will cause a big loss of
material and even peoples life.

Highland Towers-
Malaysia

Overturning
Shanghai-China residential building
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 Soil Quality Is The Key
 Building rely on soil beneath to stay put. If the soil under the
house moves up, down, or sideway, the house is in trouble.
 The soil profile may be varies as we move across from side
to side, and when we dig deeper downward.
 Strong soil- weak soil type range from;

STRONG Bedrock-gravel-course sand-fine sand-clay-silt-organic material. WEAK

The following are the different types of soils on which

foundations are constructed:
 Soft soils - This soil is compressible and yields when
loaded. Examples are clayey soil and loam. Small buildings
or ordinary structures can be built on these types of soils.
 Spreading soils - These are non-cohesive soils. Examples
of this type of soil are sand and gravel.
 Hard or rocky soils - These are incompressible and strong
soils. They can withstand heavy loads without yielding.
15 Multistoried buildings and water reservoirs are designed on
such soils.
 Types of Foundation
• Strip/Spread
Shall Footings
• Pad

ow Footing/Foundation
• Raft/Mat Foundation

• End Bearing Pile

• Friction pile (spun
Deep pile, bored pile,
bakau pile and
micro pile)
• combine

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 SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS
RAFT FOUNDATIONS

STRIP FOUNDATIONS PAD FOUNDATIONS

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 Strip Foundation
 Most suitable, economical type of
foundation for small building on
compact soil.
 Strip foundation should be
build/construct on soil with high
bearing capacity.
 This type of foundation is also
known as wall foundation or
continues spread footing
foundation.
 Consist of continuous strip of steel-
reinforced concrete, from centrally
under load bearing walls.
 The continuous strip serves as a
level base on which the wall is build
and the width is design to capable
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to support the load without undue
 Strip Foundation
The greater the bearing capacity of the subsoil, the
less the width of the foundation.
Width of strip foundations depends on the bearing
capacity of the subsoil and the load on the
foundations.
Refer table 3.2 for minimum width of strip foundations.
Types of strip foundations;
stepping strip,
wide strip and
narrow strip (trench fill or deep strip).

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 Characteristic of Spread/Strip
Footings
Low Cost
Ease of construction
For small-medium size structures with
moderate-good soil.
For large structures with exceptionally good
soil or shallow bedrock.
Spread/strip footing may be built in different
shapes and sizes to accommodate individual
needs.

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 Types of spread footings based
on size and shape
N Types of Spread
o Footings Applicable

1 Square for a single centrally-located column

2 Rectangular when large moment load are present

3 Circular for light standards, flagpoles etc

4 Continuous for bearing walls

(wall/strip footings)

5 Combined when columns are close together

for walls of above-ground circular storage

6 Ring tanks

Strap (cantilever when very close to a property line/other

7 footing) structure

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 In both
situations shown
the thickness (T)
of the foundation
should be equal
to P or 150mm,
whichever is
greater T T
T=P or 150mm
(whichever
greater) Foundation width Foundation width should be
should not be less than not less than the
the appropriate appropriate dimensions in
dimension in Table 3.2 Table 3.2 plus offset
dimensions A1 and A2
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 If P is greater than T, then the
foundation may shear at 45°
reducing the width of the
foundation and bearing area.
The foundation fails
where tension is P
exerted on the concrete

Shear failure angle

45°
Following the shear failure, the
load is concentrated on a smaller
area, the ground may consolidate
under the increased load

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  When strip foundation
used in sloping sites-
stepped the foundation.
 The full thickness of the
upper foundation should
overlap twice twice the
height of the step
(O=2xT), or 300 mm
whichever is greater.
 The brickwork and
blockwork on the top of
the foundation should tie
in at the step to avoid
the needs of cutting
STEPPING STRIP bricks/blocks and to
avoid the possibility of
FOUNDATIONS reducing the stability of
the wall.
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 WIDE STRIP FOUNDATIONS

Figure 8: Wide Strip

Foundation

 Wide strip foundations distribute loads over a larger

area and reducing the load per unit area on the
ground.
 Wider strip foundation is most suitable for subsoil with
poor bearing capacity such as soft sandy clays.
 Widening and deepening the concrete foundation (to
ensure the foundation does not shear) –
26 uneconomical. Alternatively-form a strip of steel-
reinforce concrete for safe-economical wide strip
 NARROW STRIP FOUNDATIONS
 Also known as trench fill/deep strip
foundation.
 Suitable for good bearing soil with no
seasonal volume change soil/clay; e.g:
stiff clay.
 The base of narrow/deep strip will
extend up to a depth where the clay soil
is unaffected by seasonal changes in
moisture content.
 50-mm thick compressible sheet
material may needed to prevent lateral
pressure to the sides of the foundation
(saturated and dries out condition cause
expansion and contraction of soil at the
external face of the foundation)

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 Rectangular Spread
Footings
 It have plan dimension of B x L, where L is the longest
dimension.
 These are useful when obstructions prevent construction of
a square footing with a sufficiently large base area and
when large moment loads are present.

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 Circular Spread Footings
 This foundation are
round in plan view.
 These are more
frequently used as
foundation for light
standard, flagpoles, and
power transmission line.
 If these foundation
extend to a large depth,
they may be have more
like a deep foundation.

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 Continuous Spread
Footings
This type of foundation is also known as wall
foundation or strip foundation.
It uses is to support bearing wall.

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 Ring Spread Footings
 This footing are continuous
footing that been wrapped into
a circle.
 This type of footing is
commonly used to support the
walls of above-ground circular
storage tanks.

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 Forces pushing
down must equal
the forces pushing
up - EQUILIBRIUM

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 Heave

If the forces pushing up is

greater than the forces
pushing down the building will
be pushed upwards – HEAVE

If forces pushing down is

greater than the forces
pushing up the building will
sink – SUBSIDENCE
Subsid
e

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 Problems if the rules are The load spreads at
not followed about 400 through the
foundation
(P>T)

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 Loads Acting on the
Foundation
 The foundation has to bear more than
just the load of the superstructure.

 A load can be defined as anything,

which exerts pressure or thrust on a
structure.

 The following are the different types of

loads that act on the building
foundation:

 Live Load (Q ) - A live load or

k
imposed load is a movable,
temporary or transferable load. This
can include moving vehicles, people
walking or children jumping.
 Dead Load (G )- This load is
k
permanent and immovable. It is the
non- transferable load of the
structure itself.
35  Wind Load (W ) - This load is
k
applicable when the structure is tall.
 Rock or soil Typical bearing value
(kN/m2)
Massive igneous 10,000
bedrock 2,000 to 4,000
Sandstone 600 to 2,000
Shales and mudstone 600
Gravel, sand and gravel,
compact
Medium dense sand 100 to 300
Loose fine sand Less than 100
Hard clay 300 to 600
Medium clay 100 to 300
Soft Clay Less than 75

36 Typical allowable bearing values

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 PAD FOUNDATION/FOOTING
 Similar to continuous
footings accept for they
are usually lain under a
single pier/column.
 Pad foundation spread the
load out (in a square) with
the column/pier sitting in
the middle of the square.
 Can also be designed for
loads of the walls and the
buildings are transferred
through ground beams
that rest on the pad
foundations.
 The pad foundations will
transfer the loads to a
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lower level where soil of
 Construction sequence of pad foundation

Marked out and excavate The clean and leveled Formwork for the footing
ground to correct level. ground then poured with installed at the correct
Excavation level should up 50mm thickness lean position
to good load bearing concrete.
strata.

After pad footing detailing

inspected and approved than
concrete can be poured and
leave the foundation to dry
(curing process)
Install reinforcement according
39 to construction detailing
 PAD FOUNDATION/FOOTING
The advantage of this
system of foundation is
that pockets of tipped
stone or brick and
concrete rubble that
would obstruct bored
pile may be removed as
the pits are excavated.
The nature of subsoil
also may be examined
as the pits are dug to
select a level of sound
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subsoil.
 Square Footings

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 Combined Footing Foundation
 In this type, the two
walls or columns of a
superstructure are
provided with a single
combined footing.
 This is designed so that
the center of gravity of
the supporting area is in
proportion to the center
These are usefull when of gravity of the tow
columns are located too column loads.
close together for each to
have its own footing.  These can be
42 rectangular or
trapezoidal in shape.
 RAFT FOUNDATION
 Depending on its
position raft foundation
also known as Mat
foundation in floating
position.
 Sometimes also called
as Floating Foundation.
 Used where heavily
constructed loads are to
be distributed over a
large surface area.
 It is used where the soil
is marshy, clayey or
soft, with weak bearing
43 capacity.
 RAFT FOUNDATION

This consists of
reinforced concrete
slabs covering the
entire area of
construction, like a
floor.
Always made of
reinforced
concrete.
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SIMPLE RAFT FOUNDATION
 RAFT FOUNDATION
 If ground
pressures are
likely to be
excessive at
different
seasons,
reinforcement
may be
required; this is
known as
fabric when in
sheet mesh
form.
REINFORCED RAFT FOUNDATION

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 Conditions for Raft/Mat Foundations
-Structural loads require large area to spread the load
-Soil is erratic and prone to differential settlements
-Structural loads are erratic
-Unevenly distributed lateral loads
-Uplift loads are larger than spread footings can
accommodate;
-Mat foundations are easier to waterproof

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 CHAPTER 2:
SUBSTRUCTURE
Summary
Building foundation:

1. Shallow Foundation

 Strip footings ,

 Pad footing,

47  Raft foundation.
 CHAPTER 2:
SUBSTRUCTURE
Summary
Building foundation:

1. Deep Foundation

 Driven pile , Methods:

1. End bearing
 Drilled pile,
pile.
 Spun pile. 2. Friction pile.
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 Bored pile.