Aluminum Alloys

• In commercial metals aluminum stands second to steel

in its importance.
• Steel makes large structures and tools possible while
aluminum makes structures which would be too heavy
for steel.
• E.g. Aircrafts, satellites, missiles, automobile
components, architectural components like windows,
doors etc.
• Most abundant metal in the earth crust as Al2O3
• Aluminum oxide is a very stable compound and its reduction to
form aluminum is difficult due to which initially aluminum was
very expensive and considered a precious metal.
• Hall discovered an efficient electrolytic reduction process in 1886.
• In 1850 price of Aluminum was USD 500/lb which came down to
USD 0.15/lb
Production of Aluminum
• Bauxite, which consists mainly of hydrated aluminum oxides, is the
chief commercial mineral used for the production of aluminum.
• In the Bayer process, bauxite is reacted with hot sodium hydroxide to
convert the aluminum in the ore to sodium aluminate.
• The aluminum hydroxide is then thickened and calcined to aluminum
oxide, Al2O3.
• The aluminum oxide is dissolved in a molten bath of cryolite
(Na3AlF6).
• in an electrolytic cell by using carbon anodes and cathodes.
• In the electrolysis process, metallic aluminum forms in the liquid
state and sinks to the bottom of the cell and is periodically tapped
off.
General properties of Al and its
alloys
• Light weight one third the weight of steel.
• Good thermal and electrical conductivity
• Strength is generally low but strength to weight ratio is
good.
• Good corrosion resistance due to passive aluminum
oxide layer.
• Casting, forming and machining is easy
• Most alloys can be welded
• Can be anodized to form hard corrosion resistance
surface.
Wrought Aluminum Alloys
• Al alloys processed in solid form via rolling, forging,
extrusion etc.
• Aluminum alloys produced in the wrought form (i.e., sheet,
plate, extrusions, rod, and wire).
• A four-digit numerical designation is used to identify
aluminum wrought alloys.
• The first digit indicates the alloy group that contains specific
alloying elements.
• The last two digits identify the aluminum alloy or indicate
the aluminum purity. The second digit indicates modification
of the original alloy or impurity limits.
Temper Designations
• F—As fabricated. No control over the amount of strain
hardening; no mechanical property limits.
• O—Annealed and recrystallized. Temper with the lowest
strength and highest ductility.
• H—Strain-hardened (see subsequent subsection for
subdivisions).
• T—Heat-treated to produce stable tempers other than F
or O (see subsequent subsection for subdivisions).
Strain-Hardened Subdivisions
• H1—Strain-hardened only. The degree of strain hardening is
indicated by the second digit and varies from quarter-hard
(H12) to full-hard (H18), which is produced with approximately
75% reduction in area.
• H2—Strain-hardened and partially annealed. Tempers ranging
from quarter hard to full-hard obtained by partial annealing of
cold-worked materials with strengths initially greater than
desired. Tempers are H22, H24, H26, and H28.
• H3—Strain-hardened and stabilized. Tempers for age-softening
aluminum– magnesium alloys that are strain-hardened and then
heated at a low temperature to increase ductility and stabilize
mechanical properties. Tempers are H32, H34, H36, and H38.
Heat-Treated Subdivisions
• T1—Naturally aged. Product is cooled from an elevated-temperature
shaping process and naturally aged to a substantially stable
condition.
• T3—Solution heat-treated, cold-worked, and naturally aged to a
substantially stable condition.
• T4—Solution heat-treated and naturally aged to a substantially stable
condition.
• T5—Cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process and then
artificially aged.
• T6—Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged.
• T7—Solution heat-treated and stabilized.
• T8—Solution heat-treated, cold-worked, and then artificially aged.
• Aerospace: High-strength alloys like T6 are used in
aircraft structures for their excellent strength-to-weight
ratio.
• Automotive: T5 and T6 tempers are common in car
frames and engine components due to their durability
and resistance to corrosion.
• Construction: T4 and T5 alloys are used in building
facades and window frames for their good formability
and strength.
• Wrought aluminum alloys can conveniently be divided
into two groups: non–heat-treatable and heat-treatable
alloys.
• Non–heat-treatable aluminum alloys cannot be
precipitation-strengthened but can only be cold-worked
to increase their strength.
• The three main groups of non–heattreatable wrought
aluminum alloys are the 1xxx, 3xxx, and 5xxx groups.
Non heat treatable
• 1xxx alloys. These alloys have a minimum of 99.0%
aluminum, with iron and silicon being the major
impurities (alloying elements). An addition of 0.12%
copper is added for extra strength.
• 3xxx alloys. Manganese is the principal alloying element
of this group and strengthens aluminum mainly by solid-
solution strengthening.
• 5xxx alloys. Magnesium is the principal alloying element
of this group and is added for solid-solution
strengthening in amounts up to about 5%.
Heat-Treatable Wrought Aluminum
Alloys
• Aluminum alloys that can be precipitation-.strengthened by
heat treatment.
• 2xxx alloys. The principal alloying element of this group is
copper, but magnesium is also added to most of these alloys.
• One of the most important alloys of this group is 2024, which
contains about 4.5% copper (Cu), 1.5% Mg, and 0.6% Mn.
• This alloy is strengthened mainly by solid-solution and
precipitation strengthening.
• Alloy 2024 in the T6 condition has a tensile strength of about
(442 MPa) and is used, for example, for aircraft structures.
• 6xxx alloys. The principal alloying elements for the 6xxx
group are magnesium and silicon, which combine to
form an intermetallic compound, Mg2Si, which in
precipitate form strengthens this group of alloys.
• Alloy 6061 is one of the most important alloys of this
group and has an approximate composition of 1.0% Mg,
0.6% Si, 0.3% Cu, and 0.2% Cr.
• This alloy in the T6 heat-treated condition has a tensile
strength of about (290 MPa) and is used for general-
purpose structurals.
• 7xxx alloys. The principal alloying elements for the 7xxx
group of aluminum alloys are zinc, magnesium, and
copper. Zinc and magnesium combine to form an
intermetallic compound, MgZn2. which is the basic
precipitate that strengthens these alloys when they are
heat-treated.
• The relatively high solubility of zinc and magnesium in
aluminum makes it possible to create a high density of
precipitates and hence to produce very great increases
in strength.
• Alloy 7075 is one of the most important alloys of this
group; it has an approximate composition of 5.6% Zn,
2.5% Mg, 1.6% Cu, and 0.25% Cr. Alloy 7075.
• when heat-treated to the T6 temper, has a tensile
strength of about (504 MPa) and is used mainly for
aircraft structures.
Aluminum Casting Alloys
• Aluminum alloys are normally cast by one of three main
processes:
• sand casting, permanent-mold, and die casting.
• Aluminum casting alloys have been developed for
casting qualities such as fluidity and feeding ability as
well as for properties such as strength, ductility, and
corrosion resistance.
• Silicon in the range of about 5% to 12% is the most
important alloying element in aluminum casting alloys
since it increases the fluidity of the molten metal.
• Magnesium in the range of about 0.3% to 1% is added to
increase strength, mainly by precipitation strengthening
through heat treatment.
• Copper in the range of about 1% to 4% is also added to
some aluminum casting alloys to increase strength,
particularly at elevated temperatures. Other alloying
elements such as zinc, tin, titanium, and chromium are
also added to some aluminum casting alloys.
• The number following the decimal point indicates
whether the alloy is a casting (.0) or an ingot (.1 or .2).
A capital letter prefix indicates a modification to a
specific alloy.
• For example, Alloy - A356.0 the capital A (Axxx.x)
indicates a modification of alloy 356.0. The number 3
(A3xx.x) indicates that it is of the silicon plus copper
and/or magnesium series. The 56 (Ax56.0) identifies the
alloy within the 3xx.x series, and the .0 (Axxx.0)
indicates that it is a final shape casting and not an
ingot.
COPPER ALLOYS
• Copper is an important engineering metal and is widely
used in the unalloyed condition as well as combined
with other metals in the alloyed form.
• In the unalloyed form copper has an extraordinary
combination of properties for industrial applications.
• high electrical and thermal conductivity
• good corrosion resistance
• ease of fabrication,
• medium tensile strength
• controllable annealing properties
• general soldering and joining characteristics.
Production of Copper
• Most copper is extracted from ores containing copper
and iron sulfides.
• Copper sulfide concentrates obtained from lower-grade
ores are smelted in a furnace to produce a mixture of
copper and iron sulfides and separated from slag.
• The copper sulfide is then chemically converted to
impure or blister copper (98% + Cu) by blowing air.
• iron sulfide is oxidized first and slagged off in this
operation.
• Subsequently most of the impurities in the blister
copper are removed in a refining furnace and are
removed as a slag.
• This refined copper is called tough-pitch copper, and
although it can be used for some applications,
• most tough-pitch copper is further refined
electrolytically to produce 99.95% electrolytic tough-
pitch (ETP) copper.
• Unalloyed copper is an important engineering metal,
and because of its high electrical conductivity, it is used
to a large extent in the electrical industry.
• Electrolytic tough-pitch (EPT) copper is the least
expensive of the industrial coppers and is used for the
production of wire, rod, plate, and strip.
• ETP copper has a nominal oxygen content of 0.04%.
Oxygen is almost insoluble in ETP copper and forms
interdendritic Cu2O when copper is cast.
• For most applications, the oxygen in ETP copper is an
insignificant impurity. However, if ETP copper is heated
to a temperature above about 400°C in an atmosphere
containing hydrogen
• the hydrogen can diffuse into the solid copper and react
with the internally dispersed Cu2O to form steam
according to the reaction
• The large water molecules form internal holes,
particularly at the grain boundaries, which makes the
copper brittle.
• To avoid hydrogen embrittlement caused by Cu2O, the
oxygen can be reacted with phosphorus to form
phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5).
• Another way to avoid hydrogen embrittlement is to
eliminate the oxygen from the copper by casting the
ETP copper under a controlled reducing atmosphere.
Copper–Zinc Alloys
• The copper–zinc brasses consist of a series of alloys of
copper with additions of about 5% to 40% zinc.
• Copper forms substitutional solid solutions with zinc up
to about 35% zinc.
• When the zinc content reaches about 40%, alloys with
two phases, alpha and beta form.
Copper–Tin Bronzes
• Copper–tin alloys, which are properly called tin bronzes
are produced by alloying about 1% to 10% tin with
copper to form solid-solution-strengthened alloys.
• Wrought tin bronzes are stronger than Cu–Zn brasses,
especially in the cold-worked condition, and have better
corrosion resistance, but cost more.
Copper–Beryllium Alloys
• Copper–beryllium alloys are produced containing
between 0.6% and 2% Be with additions of cobalt from
0.2% to 2.5%.
• These alloys are precipitation-hardenable and can be
heat-treated and cold-worked to produce tensile
strengths as high as (1463 MPa).
• which is the highest strength developed in commercial
copper alloys. Cu–Be alloys are used for tools requiring
high hardness and non-sparking characteristics for the
chemical industry.
Strengthening Mechanisms
• Solid Solution Strengthening: Brass (Cu-Zn), Bronze
(Cu-Sn), Copper-Nickel (Cu-Ni)
• Precipitation Hardening: Copper-Beryllium (Cu-Be),
Copper-Chromium (Cu-Cr)
• Work Hardening: Pure copper, Work-hardened brass
and bronze
• Grain Boundary Strengthening: Fine-grained brass,
Fine-grained bronze
role of Pb in copper alloys
• Lead (Pb) is often added to copper alloys, particularly
brasses, to enhance machinability and improve wear
properties.
• Lead separates as small particles.
Titanium and its alloys

37
Extraction of titanium
• Abundant metal, 4th after Al, Fe and Mg
• Occurs as rutile and ilmenite sand
• Ore treated with chlorine gives tetrachloride
• Reduction of tetrachloride with Mg or Na
• All refractories attacked by molten Ti
• Vacuum melting in water-cooled copper hearths.
• High cost material 10 the energy of steel

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Properties of titanium
• Light weight ~4.5 Mg/m3
• High strength
• 410 MPa yield for commercially pure metal to 1300 MPa by alloying and
heat treatment
• Excellent corrosion resistance in aqueous salt or oxidising acids
• Tight, microscopic oxide film on exposure to air
• Exposure to temperatures over 480˚C causes oxide to dissolve in
titanium, causing embrittlement

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Applications
• High temperature strength (up to 480˚C) and high
strength-to-weight ratio
• Aircraft & aerospace, Soviet submarines
• Excellent corrosion resistance
• Chemical & seawater piping and vessels
• Prosthetic devices

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Crystal structure
• Allotropic
• Up to 882˚C cph a
• Over 882˚C bcc b - excellent hot workability
• Melts at 1670˚C
• Ductility is better than other cph metals, eg Mg and Zn

41
Titanium alloy types
Neutral Alpha stabilisers
T [˚C] T [˚C]
bbcc b
882 882
a
acph

Ti Sn, Zr Ti Al, O, N, C

Isomorphous b-stabilisers Eutectoid b-stabilisers

T [˚C] T [˚C]
bbcc bbcc
882 b-transus 882
a-transus a+b b +
acph g
acph a+b a+b +
g
Ti Mo, V, Ta, Nb Ti Fe, Mn, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Si, H
Titanium alloys
• Approximately 25 alloy grades in 4 groups commonly
available
• Commercially pure grades
• Alpha and near-alpha alloys
• Alpha-beta alloys
• Metastable beta alloys

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Titanium alloy heat treatment
• Heating to beta region causes grain coarsening, unlike
steels where austenitisation causes grain refinement
• Alpha-beta alloys and metastable beta alloys are age
hardenable
• Beta can be retained on quenching, or transform to a by
nucleation and growth, or can undergo a martensitic
transformation

44
Commercially pure alloys
• Contain controlled levels of oxygen, nitrogen, iron and
carbon.
• O, N and C are interstitial elements
• Rapidly increase strength
• Rapidly reduce ductility
• Cause strain-aging phenomena
• Interaction between dislocations and impurities
• Yield strength levels 240 to 550MPa

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Alpha and near alpha alloys
• a-alloys cannot be heat treated to increase strength
• Contain Al, Sn, Mo, V, Zr, Mo
• Small amounts of b-stabilisers in near a alloys (Zr, V)
• Al is a strong solid solution hardener, increases recrystallisation
temperature, alpha stabiliser
• Al content is limited (6 - 8%) by the tendency to form a2
• Embrittlement, stress corrosion
• Sn increases strength, but has little adverse effect on ductility

46
Properties of alpha alloys
• Yield strengths 320 to 830MPa
• Good creep strength and oxidation resistance
• Good properties at cryogenic temperatures

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Alpha-beta alloys
• Contain a-stabilisers + b-stabilisers
• b-phase (bcc) is more ductile than a-phase (cph)
• Hot worked in high temperature range (b) at which they are more
ductile
• Hot work in a + b region followed by heat treatment is used to
control mechanical properties
• Example Ti-6Al-4V(most popular alloy, 50% of all TI)
• Yield strengths 590 to 1210MPa

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Magnesium alloys
• Lightest of common structural metals - density
1.74Mg/m3
• Low elastic modulus (~45GPa)
• Greater displacement under similar loads than Al or steel
• Absorbs vibrational and shock loading
• Melts at 649˚C, low thermal and electrical conductivity

50
Structural applications
• Alloys can show a weight saving over Al or steel
• Up to 350MPa tensile strength
• Transport, particularly aircraft and aerospace.
• High speed machinery
• Poor wear, impact, creep and fatigue performance
• Not for elevated temperatures
Other applications
• As an alloying ingredient in Al, Zn, Cu, and other metals
• Corrosion protection anodes
• Deoxidation agent and oxygen scavenger
• Reducing agent for producing Ti, Zr, Ha, U and Be
• Constituent in chemicals

52
Fabrication
• Excellent machineability, better than aluminium or steel
• Work hardens rapidly. Cold work limited
• Hot works at 230 - 370˚C (typically)
• No protective atmosphere necessary
• Good weldability with inert gas shielded processes
• Adhesive bonds and rivets used
• Cast-in inserts of steel, brass, bronze, etc

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Pure magnesium
• Has little structural use
• Soft, poor corrosion and oxidation resistance, difficult to work,
expensive
• Deoxidant, desulphuriser in manufacturer of Ni, steel,
cast iron
• Reducing agent for Ti, etc

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Magnesium alloys
• Up to 10% Al + Zn, Mn
• Alloys containing zirconium, rare earths, thorium or
silver are age hardenable

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Quiz 4
• Select suitable alloys of copper for following
applications
a. highest strength applications for tools etc Cu Be
b. High conductivity applications in electronics industry ETP
c. Non sparking applications Cu Be
d. Machine bearings CuSn
e. Ammunition components CuZn
Quiz 5
• Why Titanium alloys are very attractive for aerospace and biomedical applications
Quiz 6
• Differentiate and explain the strengthening mechanisms
found in copper alloys.