LOGO
Introduction to Solid State Electronics
Dr.
Dr.Muhammad
MuhammadRafique
RafiqueNaich
Naich
06/05/25 1
Outline
1 Introduction
2 Power Converters
3 Role of Filters
4 Solid State Switches
5 Commutation
6 Generalized Power Converter
7 Power Electronics Domains
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1. Introduction: What is Power Electronics
Electrical Engineering can be divided into three
main areas, Electronics, Power and Control.
The Electronics area deals primarily with
devices and circuits for the processing of
information;
The Power area deals with both rotating and
static equipment for the generation,
transmission, distribution, and utilization of
vast quantities of electrical power;
The control area deals with the stability and
response characteristics of closed-loop systems
using feedback on either a continuous or
sampled-data basis.
Interstitial to all three of these areas is Power
Electronics, which deals with the use of
electronics for the control and conversion of
large amounts of electrical power.
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1. Introduction: What is Power Electronics
The origins of power electronics can be traced back many years, at
which time mercury-arc devices were utilized for the rectification of
AC to DC or the inversion of DC to AC. However, today’s rapidly
growing usage of power electronics has resulted from the development
of solid-state power devices.
Specifically, then, we will limit the use of the name power electronics
to those applications in which electrical power flows through and is
controlled by one or more solid-state power devices.
All of the important parameters of the electrical waveform are subject
to regulation or conversion by solid-state power devices, including
effective voltage, effective current, frequency, and/or power factor.
Often the control of electrical power is desired simply as a means for
controlling some non-electrical parameter. For example, drives for
controlling the speed of a motor. In other applications, power
electronics is used to control the temperature of an oven, the rate of an
electrochemical refining process, the intensity of lighting, etc.
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1. Introduction: What is Power Electronics
The design of power electronics equipment involves interactions with
the source and the load, and utilizes small-signal electronic control
circuits as well as power devices.
Power electronics depends upon all of the other areas of electrical
engineering. Obviously, the potential scope of this field is quite vast!
Most important distinction between power electronics and small-signal
electronics is the importance attached to overall power efficiency.
In small electronics, other factors outweigh power efficiency.
In Power electronics, power efficiency is critical because both the cost
of dissipating the heat and the cost of the wasted power are significant
compared to the total cost of the equipment.
The importance of power efficiency dictates that the basic control
element in power electronics must be a switch, NOT a continuously
variable element.
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2. Power Converters as Switching matrices
The first fundamental principle to
remember forever is that power
efficiency dictates that switches be
used as control devices.
The second fundamental principle,
which is of equal importance, is
that all high-power controls or
converters are simply switching
matrices.
Like a telephone exchange, a
general switching matrix permits
any incoming line to be connected
for a specified period of time to any
outgoing line.
2 x m x n lines for switching
control.
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2. Power Converters as Switching matrices
If there are m incoming lines and n outgoing lines, the matrix has m x
n switches.
Because of the fact that most solid-state switches are unilateral, the
general solid-state switching matrix has 2 x m x n switches, one switch
of each polarity for each intersection.
A power switching matrix synthesizes the desired voltages on the
output lines from selected “chunks” of the input voltages as dictated
by the switching control signals. The functions which a given converter
circuit can perform are dictated by
(a) which of the switches are omitted from the general matrix,
(b) the switching control signals, and
(c) the types of solid-state switches used.
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3. Role of Power Filters
The voltage waveforms which are synthesized by the switching matrix
are usually only an approximation to the desired output waveforms.
Although the approximation could be improved by using continuously
variable devices in place of the switches, this would cause an
intolerable loss in power efficiency.
Because of the repetitive nature of the switching action, the
discrepancy in the waveforms appears as spurious frequencies which
can be removed by a filter in the output lines.
In other words, the output filter absorbs the unwanted ripple voltages
from the output of the matrix.
A secondary effect is that the input current waveforms to the matrix
contain spurious frequencies which may be undesirable in the supply
lines or the source.
Therefore another filter may be needed on the input lines to provide a
local path for the unwanted ripple currents required by the matrix.
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3. Role of Power Filters
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3. Role of Power Filters
These discrepancies may be viewed as an undesired ripple in the
instantaneous power flow through the matrix.
The filters reduce this ripple in the input and output lines by storing
energy during intervals of excess power flow and returning energy to the
circuit during intervals of insufficient power flow.
Filters contribute significantly to the cost, size, and weight of power
electronics equipment, as well as to its performance.
The cost and weight of the filters depend on the maximum energy storage
which is required, which depends in turn on both the power rating of the
circuit and the frequency of the undesired ripple.
The lower the ripple frequency, the longer the interval during which the
filter must be able to absorb or supply a significant portion of the rated
power.
Conversely, if the ripple frequency can be increased, comparable
performance can be obtained from smaller and less costly filters.
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4. Types of Solid-State Switches
Types of Switches: (UNILATERAL)
Type 1 DIODES - Conduct Automatically when Forward Polarity is
Applied.
Type 2 THYRISTORS or SCR’S - Begin to Conduct in the Forward
Direction Upon Command of a Control Signal and Continue to
Conduct Until the Next Current Zero Crossing.
Type 3 TRANSISTORS, GATE CONTROLLED SWITCHES, FORCE-
COMMUTATED
THYRISTORS - Forward Conduction can be Initiated and
Interrupted by Control Signals
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4. Types of Solid-State Switches
Types of Switches: (UNILATERAL)
Type 1 DIODES - Switches always conduct whenever a forward
polarity of voltage is applied to their terminals. Type 1 switches are
known as rectifiers or diodes.
Type 2 THYRISTORS or SCR’S - Switches do not conduct forward
current until commanded to do so by a control signal. Therefore Type
2 switches behave as Type 1 switches and continue to conduct as long
as forward current flows. Type 2 switches are known as thyristors (the
full official name is reverse blocking triode thyristor) or silicon
controlled rectifiers (SCR’s).
Type 3 TRANSISTORS, Switches can not only turn on forward
conduction when commanded by the control signal, but can also
interrupt conduction upon command without waiting for reverse
polarity to be applied. Power transistors and gate controlled switches
exhibit Type 3 behavior. By artificial circuit means, thyristors can also
be “force commutated” to operate as Type 3 switches.
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5. Commutation
COMMUTATION – Current Interruption or Transfer to
an Alternate Path.
NATURAL OR LINE COMMUTATION – Occurs because of the
Changing AC Line Voltages.
SELF OR FORCED COMMUTATION – Occurs because of Inherent
or Artificial Turn-off Ability.
LOAD COMMUTATION – Depends on Inherent or artificially
Produced Load Characteristics.
The process by which current in a switch is caused to cease is called
“commutation”, and the available means of commutation play an
important role in determining the capabilities of any given circuit.
Mercury arc devices utilize “natural” or “line” commutation.
(a) because the circuit current goes to zero, or
(b) because the circuit current is transferred to another switch which
is connected to a higher potential.
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6. Generalized Power Converter
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6. Generalized Power Converter
Each power device or group of devices is embedded within a power
module which interfaces it with the surrounding power circuit. The
power module implements the function of a single switch in the
switching matrix. In addition to one or more power devices, each
power module contains one or more heat sinks, fuses and other
components to protect the power devices, and sometimes local
circuitry for gating and forced commutation.
The power circuit interconnects the power modules into the appropriate
switching matrix, and includes the transformers needed for isolation,
changing voltage levels, etc. Starting from simple bridge and center-
tap arrangements and Y or delta transformer connections, the number
of power circuit configurations is seemingly endless.
The output filter smoothes the discrepancies between the voltage
waveform synthesized by the power circuit and the desired output
voltage waveform.
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6. Generalized Power Converter
Gating pulses usually have a periodicity which is
determined in one of three ways:
(a) In the simplest case, the gating signals are synchronized in
frequency with the AC supply, but with adjustable relative phase.
(b) When the converter is powered from a DC source, internal time
constants or an internal reference oscillator determine the periodicity
of switching.
(c) In a frequency changer, the gating signals must be properly
synchronized with both the AC source frequency and the desired
output frequency. In effect, the smaller of these two frequencies
modulates the larger frequency.
The design of the switching control signal generator utilizes all of the
applicable circuit technology from both analog and digital electronics.
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7. Power/Frequency Domains of Power Electronics
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7. Power/Frequency Domains of Power Electronics
Power devices can be cascaded in series to increase the voltage limit.
When this is necessary, the associated technology falls within the
“High Voltage Domain”.
Similarly power devices can be paralleled to increase the current limit,
thereby defining a “High Current Domain”.
For some applications, series/parallel arrays are required, leading to a
“High Power Domain”.
Conventional solid-state power devices are capable of much faster
switching action than a mechanical switch, but the switching time is
not zero.
Consequently there is an upper limit on the switching frequency of
conventional power devices, which for present purposes will be
arbitrarily assumed to be 1 kHz.
However, power devices especially designed for fast switching action
are available. The technology associated with the use of these fast
devices defines a “High Frequency Domain”.
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8. Technologies for Power Electronics
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9. Converter Technologies defined
Power Converter Terminology:
CONVERTER – General Term
SWITCH – Full Off or Full On
REGULATOR – Intermediate Control of AC or DC
RECTIFIER – Converts AC to DC
INVERTER – Converts DC to AC
FREQUENCY CHANGER – Changes Frequency of AC Power
P.F CHANGER – Changes Power Factor of an AC Load
AC/DC CONVERTER – Operates as Rectifier or Inverter
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10. Operation of an AC/DC Converter
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10. Operation of an AC/DC Converter
In quadrant I, where average voltage and average current are both
“positive”, net power flow is from the AC terminals to the DC
terminals; the process is known as positive rectification.
If both the average voltage and average current are negative, net
power flow is still from the AC terminals to the DC terminals and the
process is known as negative rectification.
If either the average voltage or the average current reverses (but not
both), power flow also reverses. That is, in Quadrants II and IV,
power flows from the DC terminals to the AC terminals.
In AC/DC converters, the AC line provides the current zeros needed
to naturally commutate Type 2 switches.
In quadrants II and IV the process is known as synchronous inversion
to distinguish it from the type of inversion which requires forced
commutation.
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