KIGALI INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY ULK

ETHICS, RWANDAN CULTURE & CIVIC EDUCATION MODULE

Prof. Dr. RWIGAMBA Balinda

+25(0) 788302348

Dr. KAGABIKA Muyuku Boaz

E-mail: kagabikab5@[Link]
Tel: + 25 (0)788517276

IRAHA SOLANGE
E-mail:solangeiraha@[Link]
Tel : +25(0)788847323
 ETHICS, RWANDAN CULTURE & CIVIC EDUCATION
MODULE
1. Brief description of aims and contents
This module is made of the following units: Ethics, Rwandan Culture
and Civic Education.
The general objective of this module is to sensitize the students of
this university to become real cadres of change for better life (at
individual, family, community, national and international levels).
Specifically the module focuses on:
* How to behave and apply good principles and values in
one’s life;
* Getting knowledge of some basic concepts of Ethics

Rwandan Culture and Civic Education;

* Acquiring technical know-how from theoretical knowledge
learned in the module;
* Acquiring civic education.
2. Assessment Strategy
Learning Outcomes will be evaluated gradually after each unit. An
examination of duration of 3 hours will be prepared, and everyone is
expected to sit for it. The assignments and presentations in groups work
will be marked too.
3. Assessment Pattern
Component Weighting (%) Learning objectives covered

Assignments 30 1, 2, 3
Partial Assessment Test 30 1, 2, 3
Final Assessment: 40 1, 2, 3, 4
4. Strategy for feedback and student support during module
The final test or examinations, presentations on structural exercises and
assignments will be marked. Students’ marks will be registered and
made available on the web site of ULK. Students’ marks will be copied
on the transcripts that will be available to students’ levels).
 5. Indicative Contents:
Part I: Ethics
Chapter I : Theoretical Considerations
Chapter II : Principles of a Happy Life
Chapter III : Ethics and Business
Chapter IV : Ethics and Sciences
Part II: Rwandan Culture and Civic Education
Chapter V: Rwandan Culture and Civic Education of
the Pre-Colonial Period
Chapter VI: Rwandan Culture and Civic Education of the
Colonial Period
Chapter VII: Rwandan Culture and Civic Education of the Post-
Colonial Period
Chapter VIII : Rwandan Culture and Civic Education of the Post-
Genocide Period
 6. INDICATIVE RESOURCES/ BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANSALDI, Jean : Ethique et Sanctification, 1983.

BLANCHARD, Ken and Hodges, Phil: Lead like Jesus: Lesson from the greatest
Leadership Role Mode of all times, W publishing group, Nashville, TN, USA, 2005

BONHOEFFER, Dietrich : Ethique, 1965.

BRAECKMAN Colette, Rwanda. Histoire d’un genocide, Paris, Fayard, 1994.

BUJO, Bénézet : Morale africaine et foi chrétienne, 1980.

BYANAFASHE D. And RUTAYISIRE P., Histoire du Rwanda, des origines à la fin du

XXe siècle, Centre de gestion des conflits (CGC), Edition de l’Université Nationale du
Rwanda, Huye, 2011.

CARTWRIGHT Roger (2000), Customer relations. Printice Hall, London, UK.

CHRETIEN, Jean Pierre : Rwanda, les médias du génocide, éditions

KAGAME, Alexis : Un abrégé de l’ethnohistoire du Rwanda, 1972.

KAGAME, Alexis: Un abrégé de l’histoire du Rwanda de 1853 à 1972, 1975

KANYAMACUMBI, Patient : Société, culture et pouvoir politique en Afrique

interlacustre, Hutu et tutsi de l’ancien Rwanda, 1995.

KANYAMACUMBI, Patient : Société, culture et pouvoir politique en Afrique

interlacustre, Hutu et tutsi de l’ancien Rwanda, Mythes et Réalités, 2ème
Edition 2016.

KARZ A. Jerome and Richard P. Green (2007), Entrepreneurial small business, Mc

Graw-Hill, Irwin.

LUGAN B., Histoire du Rwanda. De la préhistoire à nos jours, Paris, Bartillat,

1997.

MISSER, François:Vers un nouveau Rwanda, entretiens avec Paul Kagame,

éditions Karthala, juin 1995.

MORRIS H. Michael and Donald F. Kuratko (2002), corporate entrepreneurship,

United States of America, Orlando, Harcourt college Publishers

MUGESERA, Antoine : Imibereho y’Abatutsi kuri repubulika ya Mbere n’iya

Kabiri (1959-1990), Les Editions Rwandaises, Kigali, mars 2004.
PART ONE: ETHICS
CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

1.1. Morals
There exists a large variety of moral practices
depending on different people living on the
earth. This is to say that each ethnic group
has its [Link] word “moral” comes from
Latin “mos” ( mores in plural) which means
“manners, “customs”, “habit” or practice”.
• Several authors define morals as “a set of
rules of behaviour considered as right by a
human community”.
• The Moral values concern the rules of conduct
accepted and practiced in a society. Some
authors speak of moral code, that is to say,
the set of rules of conduct of a given
community.
• Morals have their roots in individual
conscience. The sources of morals are:
tradition, culture, environment and natural
laws.
1.2. Ethics
The word “ethic” comes from the Greek
word “ethos” which means “custom”,
character, ways of behaviour or spirit of
people.
Ethics is defined as the science of good and
evil. Ethics distinguishes notions of good and
evil, morals and immorality or values and
anti-values.

Ethics may also be defined as that part of

human thoughts that looks for the way to
• This definition is also applied to moral
philosophy and philosophical ethics.
• It deals with morals and elaborates analyses
and theories on the notion, the function and
the value of moral judgments.
• Those judgments help us evaluate our
behaviour and the organization of the society,
as well as lead our own actions. It deals with
the value of right and wrong and thus
constitutes life orientation and a
commitment for a better life.
Ethics and morals relate to “right” and “wrong”
conduct.
While they are sometimes used interchangeably,
they are different: ethics refer to rules provided
by an external source, e.g., codes of conduct in
workplaces or principles in religions (external).
Morals refer to an individual’s own principles
regarding right and wrong internal).
[Link]
Morals
Academically, Ethics is a branch of philosophy,
which is classified among social sciences.

Ethics finds its origin in human community:

the moral philosophy or ethics begins when a
philosophical criticism of variant moral
practices is made. Ethics wants our life to be
characterized by positive human values.

The aim of ethics is to look for perfection,

which is an ideal that we must approach. It is
to look for welfare for all human beings.
• Ethics is divided into two main branches:
 Applied ethics: it studies moral problems that
we face daily, individually or collectively. It
tries to resolve them or make their analysis
progress. Examples: to cheat an exam (an
individual moral problem); immigrants’ claims
= a problem to states.
 Professional ethics: This is often called
deontology; it is a branch of ethics that deals
with moral problems with regard to
professionals like teachers, lawyers, doctors,
social workers, business people, etc.
1.3. Spirit, Soul, body
It is important to make a clear distinction
between spirit, soul and body.
The truth is that a human being is made of
three parts: body, soul and spirit.
Spirit
“Eternal God made man from the earth dust
(Genesis 2:7)
He blew into his nostrils a breath of life and
man became a living soul.
As soon as the breath of life which became man’s
spirit got into contact with his body, the soul was
produced. The soul is thus the combination of
person’s body with its spirit. The spirit has got
three main functions:
The function of moral conscience (the
discernment role which distinguishes good from
evil);
The function of intuition (it implies a direct
perception, free from any external influence of
intelligence, sentiment/ feeling or will);
The function of communion with God ( worship).
Soul
The soul has three principal faculties:
• The faculty of intelligence (the instrument of
our thoughts and intellectual capacities: such as
knowledge, reasoning wisdom, imagination,
memory, etc.
• The faculty of will: The will is the instrument of
our decision, for or against.
• The faculty of emotion: Thanks to the soul, we
can express our feeling of love, hatred, sadness,
joy, etc.
 Body
• Thanks to its five senses (sight, hearing,
smelling, taste and touch), our body is
connected to the external world.
• The human being instincts are like the
instincts of animals. That is the reason
why they must be completely dominated
by the spirit (the spiritual person)
through the soul.
By his spirit, the person is in relation with the
spiritual world (God), and by his body, he is in
relation with the external world. The soul is located
between the two worlds.
A living person is linked to the spiritual world by the
spirit and to the material world by the body. The
spirit cannot directly act on the body. It needs an
intermediary which is the soul.
The body, through the soul can bring the spirit to
love the world. Of those three elements, the spirit is
the most noble because it is linked to God. The body
is the lowest because it is in contact with the
external world.
1.4. Conscience
The word “conscience” has two meanings:
a) Psychological conscience: This is the
faculty that helps a person to know their
proper reality.
The human being has three psychical states:
The state of conscience (or the normal
functioning of mental aptitudes)
Ex:
 He has got self-conscience
 He is aware of things
The state of subconscious (or a psychical
state that one is not fully aware of his
reality)
• Ex:
 state of drunkenness;
 state of drug addiction;
 State of deep sleep.
The state of unconsciousness : This one is
characterized by a total loss of consciousness
of all the mental aptitudes. It is a state of
coma.
b) The moral conscience: This is a faculty
that helps individuals to make a moral
valuable judgment on their thoughts,
attitudes, behaviour and acts.
Ex:
 to have a clear conscience (to have
nothing to be blamed for)
 to have a guilty conscience (to be
troubled) in front of the Creator an
one’s moral conscience.
• The moral conscience and the individual’s
acts
• 1. Conception (premeditated acts)
• 2. Deliberation: arguments for and against
• 3. Decision
• 4. Execution (premeditated acts or non-
premeditated) of bad act Interior pain
(self heartbreak= Painful spot on moral
conscience) or a good act (moral
satisfaction : happiness)
5. Personal condemnation
6. Appeal for self-unity
(Appeal for interior peace)
7. Acceptance or refusal
(recidivism)
8. Repentance (profound and
sincere regret)
9. Reparation (begging for pardon,
fine, giving back what was stolen, etc.)

10. Sincere devotion of no reoffending

in front of God
in
front of your moral
conscience (spirit)
in front of the offended
1.5. Culture
The word “CULTURE”(from Latin cultura
derived from colere, meaning cultivate) has
got several definitions which all converge.
 In his book entitled “Primitive Culture”
1968, EDWARD TAYLOR defines the culture
like a complex set of a language,
knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, morals,
customs and habits that the person has
acquired as a member of the society.
 Culture is a common denominator for
members of a human society.
 The culture develops certain solidarity
among them and constitutes one of the
most important means to distinguish them
as members from other cultures.
 People without culture are like a house
without foundation.
 Some authors use the term “culture” to
speak of some people’s techniques such as
how to dress, housing, tools, arts, etc.
 These are added to immaterial culture
(language, customs, beliefs, etc.).
RWANDAN ANCIENT HAIRSTYLE
RWANDAN HANDICRAFTS
Traditional Handicrafts south Sundan
South Sudanese traditional hairstyle
Chadian traditional hairstyles
The practical guide of world-wide decade of cultural
development (1988-1998 p. 5 – 57), states that any
project on economic, social, political and
educational development that ignores the natural
milieu, and mostly cultural context of given people
is likely to fail.

It is important to avoid the ethnocentrism: this

consists of considering one’s ethnic or people’s
culture as being the best of the world, and as a
result to take it for model or reference.
Nowadays, especially in towns, the
tendency is the cultural universalisation
or globalization process.
The whole humanity gets into a unique
planetary civilization (technological
development, communication through
the internet, satellite, etc.).
The cultural symbiosis is vital: positive
aspects of foreign culture added to
positive aspects of our traditional culture.
1.6. Civic education
The word “civic” comes from Latin “civis”
meaning “citizen”.
Civic education is designed to prepare students
for their citizen role, which consists of knowing
both their civic rights and obligations.
Civic education aims at training the students to
be good citizens, the executives for the
development of the country. Besides, their
knowledge and skills, they should have high
moral values (integrity, commitment,
determination, tolerance and patriotism).
1.7. Exercises
1. What difference is there between morals and ethics? Do they have the
same objective?
2. What is the difference between applied ethics and professional ethics?
What can an institution do to reinforce its employees' Professional ethics
3. What do you know about conscience?
4. What do you know about the difference between the spirit and the soul?
Make a comparison between their functions.
5. Make a comparison between psychological conscience and moral
conscience.
6. The execution of an evil act brings about interior pain. How can one
regain internal peace thereafter?
7. With regard to the globalization phenomenon, which form of culture can
be suggested?
8. Is civic education important? Support your answer.
9. What is the importance of the culture for any given people
10. What do you think about this module of ethics
11. A person without spirit is like an animal
12. What is the role of human body?
13. What is the difference subconsciencious and unconscientious states
CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF A HAPPY LIFE

2.1. To have faith in God

 Having faith in God is a very important
principle in order to have a happy life.
 We must recognize that our birth has not been
the fruit from hazard.
 Before we were born from our parents, we
had been conceived in the spirit of God
(WARREN, Rick 2002:23). We are in this room,
alive, aware of what we are doing, because
God wants it.
 Having faith in God gives the internal
vital force, provides a great deal of
energy and courage to do very great
things, «may that be done according to
your faith» (Matthew 9:29).

 PEALE, N. Vincent (1990:111) asserts that

«Your rate of success will be proportional
to the faith that you have got in yourself,
your work, and in God».
 Believing in God helps acquire self-confidence
and eliminates all complex of inferiority and
incapacity, «I can all by who that fortifies me»
(Philippians 4:13).
 A lot of people do not succeed to achieve
great things because they do not have faith in
God and in themselves. And yet with the
power of faith, we can overcome any difficulty
and accomplish most incredible things.
 Faith in God needs to be fed by prayer. This is
an act by which we talk to God.
 Indeed, when getting into communication
with God, faith increases and we acquire
spiritual and physical energy.
 PEALE, N. Vincent (1990:67) asserts that «our
brain contains about two billions of small
accumulators, ready to deploy their power by
thought and prayer.
 Studies have proved the magnetic power of
human body. We dispose of thousands of
small emitting stations which, when activated
by prayer, send out a great flash-light towards
those who are the target».
• You should have a good vision of your life (of your
projects); you should think of it a lot and seriously
believe in it whatever the difficulties you may meet.
Prayer, faith in God and in ourselves as well as the
methodic work constitute the secret of success.
• Faith and prayer prevent mental diseases (that is,
psychical trouble disturbing the personality,
example depression, worries, fear), psychosis
(mental trouble altering intellectual function and
of which the subject is not aware), etc.
• Dr. Rebecca BEARD, quoted by PEALE, N. Vincent
(1990:166) has written: «We have discovered the
psychosomatic cause of the blood high pressure;
it’s in fact a subtle form of a repressed fear.
In the case of diabetes, grieves and
disappointments represent the two kinds of
emotions that are the greatest energy
consumers. They use all the insulin secreted
by pancreas cells until they are totally
expired. »
PEALE, N. Vincent (1990:166) provides
another testimony: « another lady physician
has described for me the therapy preconized
which consists of combining faith and
medicine;
I had become tense, irritable, and sometimes
affected by old fears and culpability feelings.
I needed to be comforted from those bad
tensions.
One morning, though I was depressed, I started
reading your book and I found the cure I
needed, I found myself in front of God, the
greatest physician, and my faith in him worked
as an antibiotic to deliver me from the germs of
fear and neutralize my culpability virus»
Spiritual health is essential to physical health.
2.2. To know your mission on earth
• Your mission on earth
• Your mission on this earth is to serve
God.
• By doing this, you serve people.
• In fact you were created for a mission!
Fulfilling your life mission gives your life
meaning and has eternal significance
(WARREN, Rick, 2002:326-329).
• You should accept with pleasure
God’s plans for your life, worship and
serve him whenever and wherever
you are (as a student, a teacher, a
worker, a farmer, a driver, a
policeman, a salesman, a manager, a
politician, etc.).
• Your life purpose
• Philosophers, scientists, writers and
intellectuals have discussed about the
meaning of life.
• The answer is to turn to God who is the
source and the end of it! “You were made by
God and for God, and unless you understand
that, life will never make sense.
• It is only in God we discover our origin, our
identity, our meaning, our purpose, our
significance and our destiny (WARREN, Rick,
2002:18)”.
In his book “The purpose driven life”,
Warren Rick gives five great benefits of
living a purpose-driven life (2002, 33-
38):
• Knowing your purpose gives meaning
to your life, it gives hope which is
very important for your life.
• Knowing your purpose simplifies your
life, it gives clear and good choices in
your life (decisions, use of resources,
use of time, friends, etc.).
• Knowing your purpose focuses your
life, it concentrates all your efforts to
what is important for your life.

• Knowing your purpose motivates

your life, you get passion of it i.e.
strong internal motivations.

• Knowing your purpose prepares you

for eternity.
• Your life purpose statement
When someone thinks about one’s
life purpose statement, WARREN Rick
says that you should consider life’s
five greatest questions (2002, 364-
367):
What will be the center of your life?
“When God is the center of your life,
you worship, when he is not, you
worry”(p.364).
In fact many people think that their
center of life is their jobs, families,
money, but nothing is strong
enough to hold you when your life
is leaving you!
What will be the character of your
life? You should build your
character with good principles and
values.
What will be the contribution of your life?
Your service to people according to your SHAPE
(Spiritual gifts, Heart, Abilities, Personality and
Experiences).
What will be the communication of your life?
The content of the messages that bring honor to
God.
What will be the community of your life?
This is the question of fellowship, people sharing
the same belief, same principles and values of
life.
What drives your life?
People’s lives are driven by many things (problems,
pressure, memories, fears, anger, revenge,
materialism, honour, various emotions, etc.).
WARREN Rick gives the five most common ones
(2002, 29-32):
 Many people are driven by guilt.
 Many people are driven by resentment and anger.
 Many people are driven by fear.
 Many people are driven by materialism.
 Many people are driven by the need for approval.
2.3. To have positive thoughts
Life should be filled with happiness and
satisfactions.
Negative thoughts must be driven away
from our mind and must be overcome
through prayers and positive thoughts.
«I can do everything through Him who
gives me strength» (Philippians 4:13).
In order to be successful and happy, one
should be self-confident and hold positive
attitudes.

Many people are miserable due to some

negative thoughts (fears, grieves,
disappointments, culpabilities, depression,
worries, discouragement, regrets, hatred,
failures, anger and inferiority complex) which
can be cured by prayer, faith and self-
confidence.
PEALE, N.V. (1990:24-26) provides some guiding rules to
overcome negative thought (lack of self-confidence,
discouragement, fear, worries, failure, feeling of
inferiority complex, etc.):
• 1. Fill your spirit with positive thoughts (inspired by
faith in God, confidence in yourself and the spirit of
success).
• 2. Fill your spirit with faith and prayer. Repeat several
times the statements below.
• 3. Keep a clear image of your success, seriously carry it
with you in your mind and act consequently.
«As a general rule, negative thoughts should be replaced
by positive thoughts... (PEALE, N.V. 1990:31).
Life is what you make it to be
We should entertain positive thoughts based on:
• Love and forgiveness (avoid hatred and
retaliation);
• Peace and self-control (avoid conflicts and
anger). The latter produces toxins in our body;
• Courage and hope (avoid discouragement and
despair);
• Patience (avoid being impatient);
• Generosity, integrity and justice (avoid
dishonesty, hypocrisy and injustice).
Example of Negative thoughts:
PARANOIA MEANING:
1. “Unjustified suspicion and mistrust of other
people or their actions.
2. The unwarranted or delusional belief that one
is being persecuted, harassed, or betrayed by
others, occurring as part of a mental condition”.
It is negative thought
• 2.4. To live ethical values
• Ethical values must be lived and experienced at
the level of our thoughts, words, attitudes,
• behaviors and acts. The idea is to reach the
portrait of the virtuous person marked by the
values below:
• Virtuous person Vicious person
(Ethic values) (Anti-values)
• Justice Injustice
• Integrity Hypocrisy
• Honesty Dishonesty
• Altruism Selfishness
2.4. To live ethical values (cont’d)
• Generosity Avariciousness
• Confidence Defiance
• Courage Discourage
• Endurance Lack of endurance
• Patience Impatience
 2.4. To live ethical values (cont’d)
• Temperance Intemperance
• Pardon Revenge
• Love Hatred
• Humility Pride
• Tolerance Intolerance
• Determination Indetermination
The2.4.
ethical individual seeks harmony
To live ethical values (cont’d) with God, oneself,
others and environment.
• Generosity Avariciousness
 Harmony with God
• Confidence Defiance
• To
• have faith in God; Prayer and adoration & Self-control by
Courage Discourage
spiritual person
• Endurance Lack of endurance
Harmony with oneself
• Patience Impatience
• To consider oneself’s past positively; To expect a confident
• Temperance Intemperance
future & To show permanent courage for excelling and
• Pardon Revenge
success
• Love Hatred
 Harmony with others
• Humility Pride
• To be able to appreciate others and share with them;
• Tolerance Intolerance
 Harmony with the environment
• Determination Indetermination
To adapt one-self to changes as they can happen
JOHARI window
The ethical individual seeks self-correction,
hence, the necessity of JOHARI window.
The theory of «JOHARI window» was
invented by two psychologists, Joseph
LUFT and Harry INGHAM, in their work on
group process. This concept is a kind of
window through which information
opinions are exchanged. Here we learn
how we are considered by others and how
we consider ourselves.
JOHARI window (Cont’d)
As for ethic, “JOHARI window” represents
a process with two periods:
• you must expose yourself honestly
• Be encouraged by others’ reaction upon
our behaviour.
• The goal of the process is to help
everybody to modify or correct the
unwanted behaviour.
What I know about me What I ignore about me

GREAT DAY BLIND ZONE What others know about me

The UNKNOWN ZONE

HIDDEN ZONE (unconscienciousness) What others ignore
about me

The elements in those 4 zones are not

static, but they move; this dynamism
may modify the size of each of those
zones.
 JOHARI window (Cont’d)
 The first square, called “the great day”, contains
what I know and what others know about me. It is
a zone where information exchange is free. My
thoughts and my behaviour are opened to the
public.
 The second square, called “blind zone” (known by
others, unknown by ourselves), contains the
information that others have about me, I’m not
well aware. In this sector, we find manner (voice,
attitudes, tics, gestures) inherent to each one’s
character.
 JOHARI window (Cont’d)
 The third sector, called “hidden zone” (known by
oneself, hidden to others) involves what we know
about ourselves, but what we don’t like to share with
others. This sector consists of our intimacy, privacy
(tendency, secret feeling such as hatred, jealousy,
ambitions…,

 The last square called “the unknown zone”, contains

what others and I ignore about myself.

 The objective may be to reduce the 3 zones: the blind

zone, the hidden zone and the unknown zone.
2.5. Exercises
1. How does faith in God contribute to happy life?
2. Is there any relationship between faith in God and physical healing (of
a sickness)? Explain your answer.
3. What is the cause of psychosomatic diseases and mental diseases?
4. Explain. Why should someone have a vision in his life?
5. How are positive thoughts the source of happiness (happy life)?
6. How can negative thoughts be overcome?
7. Explain the difference is between negative and positive thoughts?
8. What advice can you provide in order to overcome temptation?
9. How do ethical values contribute to happy life?
10. What do you know about JOHARI window?
11. Everybody wishes to get happiness on earth and in heaven. What
should he do in order to achieve it? But first, define what is meant by
“happiness”
12. Life is what someone wants to became. Explain your answer.
13. How someone can be in harmony with God, oneself, others and
CHAPTER 3: ETHICS AND BUSINESS
3.1. Ethics and business
The word “business” must be considered in
its large sense that covers commerce,
profession, enterprise, etc. in brief,
everything that brings incomes and
requires contact between partners.
The idea of co-operation and mostly
confidence is fundamental for any business.
In fact, the need for integrity, honesty,
engagement, respect is the central part of
 3.1 Ethics & Business (cont’d)

 “The more an enterprise succeeds, the more it needs

attention to its moral code; moreover, the more we are
promoted, the more we give importance to ethical values
in details.

 The most successful individuals and organizations are the

ones who consider ethics with much seriousness.

 This is not surprising, as the attitude towards the ethics

determines how the employees, supplier, shareholders and
the customers, as well as competitors and other members
of the community.
 3.1 Ethics & Business (cont’d)
Business practice is not only based on
profits search but it is a correct life style,
based on safe relationships between the
partners (customers, employees, employers,
suppliers, community, competitors).
In the business domain, the ethic errors are
unforgettable and unforgivable. Ex: falsifying
an entry, selling of expired product, telling
lies, cheating, stealing, lack of respect to
promises and lack of informing in due time,
 3.1 Ethics & Business (cont’d)
 Ethics errors put an end to a career more quickly and
more radically than any other judgment or
accountant errors. (SOLOMON, R, and Hanson
K.1989: 12).
 SOLOMON, R. and Hanson (1989: 14-15) state that «
a bad image for a company and for business in
general, is more dangerous than any other things …

 It is a fact, a bad image has direct consequences on

the sales, profits, moral of the personnel and the
daily management of the company”.
 3.1 Ethics & Business (cont’d)
 Managers who succeed well are the ones who give a
particular consideration to ethical values in their
companies (objectivity, integrity, promise respects, quality
of their services and etc, towards their employees, their
suppliers, their competitors, etc.)
 ROBERT SOLOMON (1989: 41) gives the criteria of a
company reputation:
• The quality products and services
• The management quality
• The innovation capacity
• The financial health &The long term investment value
• The capacity of attracting, training and maintaining
competent cadres
3.2. Micro-ethics
 Micro-ethics is the domain of the individual and
relations among persons. It is important to have
human values for oneself, then at the family level,
at the environmental and professional levels. That
is good life, to live in happiness.

 The notion of HAPPINESS does not mean to gather

a lot of wealth and money, but it is to create love,
sense of good human and individual dignity,
admiration by others. In one word: to have a
blameless moral conscience.
3.2. Micro-ethics (cont’d)
 Money and wealth must be considered as means
(tools) that must be dominated by the spiritual
person. They remain a remote objective eagerly
followed but never reached.

 Money is a good servant (it helps us find solution

to some of our needs) but it is a very bad master
when the carnal instincts overcome the spiritual
person; Money can help us buy a bed, but not
sleep, we may buy a lot of books but not brain etc.
 Money can lead someone to madness when it is
used wrongly
3.2. Micro-ethics (cont’d)
The notion of good life does not consist of
being provided with material things and
services, but it consists of producing a
happy family, friendship, love, respect,
admiration, personal dignity and proper
love; the invisibles, so called as the
economics has not invented the standard to
measure them” (SOLOMON, R., 1989: 77).
The ethical values or simply morality is
defined by the following criteria:
3.2. Micro-ethics (cont’d)
 Morality is a phenomenon living with each
individual (moral conscience is always
confronted to choice issue: good and evil).

 Morality is what we do and what we say (our

actions show our words and belief).

 Finally, morality is a life mode; it means the

satisfaction of doing well, living well and
accomplishing well our mission on earth.
3.3. Macro-ethics
Macro-ethics concerns that field of
societies, communities, professional
activity sectors, capitalism and the world.

The notion of enterprise culture is often

referred to for a set of values, relations,
ways of thinking and behaving that are
found within each enterprise and each
community.
Robert SOLOMON (1989: 125) offers 5 keys
for the enterprise ethic:
1. Justice (for the employees)
2. Quality (for customers and other
consumers)
3. Credibility (of suppliers)
4. Loyalty (towards superiors of enterprise
as well as the employer)
5. Responsibility (towards the collectivity)
Henry MINTZBERG, quoted by Robert
SOLOMON (1989: 137) provides us with
the fundamental roles for a cadre / a
manager. He should be:
1. a symbol (he represents his service
and his enterprise)
2. a chief (he must feel himself as such
because he takes part in certain
decisions: meetings, hiring
workers,training)
3. a liaison agent ( he establishes
contacts with the upper hierarchy and his
subordinates. Likewise, he keeps the
integrity of the hierarchy line).
4. a spokesperson (he disseminates the
information to whom is concerned,
advises his upper hierarchical authorities
and his subordinates).
5. an entrepreneur ( he takes initiatives
in order to improve his service).
3.4. Exercises
Comment on the following statements:
1. In matter of businesses, ethical errors are
unforgettable and unforgivable.
2. Ethical errors put on end to a career more rapidly
and more radically than any other error.
3. Nothing is more harmful than bad reputation for an
enterprise and business in general.
4. Money is a good servant but a bad master.
5. What do you know about micro-ethics?
6. What do you know about macro-ethics?
CHAPTER 4: ETHICS & SCIENCES

 The scientific and technological development

should take into consideration moral values of
the individual and society.
 The scientific and technologic research should take
into account the “happiness” of the human being.
 We agree with TSHIAMALENGA, N. (1980: 160)
who said that “a science without ethical, dynamic
and opened image of the man would be
abominable violation and a terrible threat for
humanity life…”
Let us consider some cases that do not match
with ethical values:
4.1. Bio-ethics
• Euthanasia or suicide is not allowed: It is God
who gives life and it is also Him who can take it
out of the body.
• Pollution: is the degradation of the natural area
of water and the air because of toxic substances
(from industry wastes, smokes from fuel oils,
etc.) because air pollution poisons the interior
organs (brain, heart, liver, lungs…)
• Chemical weapons and other nuclear
weapons: as ethics seeks for welfare of all
human kinds, it is against all chemical, nuclear
even simple weapons
• Voluntary Pregnancy Interruption (VPI): all
the cases of VPI or simply willing abortion are
strongly condemned by ethics because it is a
case of murder.
• Heart transplant: Transplant of organs favours
illegal business of human organs. It is not good
to kill a person to save another one’s life).
• 4.2. Ethics and Leadership
“Leadership is a process of influence that
be expressed in different styles such as:
• Dictator: This type of leader makes all
the decisions alone.
• Autocratic: all decision-making powers
are centralized in the leader
• Participative: The democratic
leadership style favors decision-making
by the group
Leading by example
Morality is a living phenomenon with each
person (moral conscience is always confronted to
choice issue: (good or bad). Morality is what we
do and what we say. In fact our actions show our
beliefs, our intentions and our words.
Developing Ethical Leadership
The 4-V Model of Ethical Leadership is a
framework that aligns the internal (motivation,
beliefs and values) with the external (behaviors
and actions) for the purpose of advancing the
common good.
Values: Ethical leadership begins with an
understanding of and commitment to our
individual values.
Virtue: Understanding that we become what
we practice
Vision: Vision is the ability to frame our actions
particularly in service to others within a real
future picture of what ought to be.
Voice: Claiming our voice is the process of
articulating our vision to others in an authentic
and convincing way that animates and
 The five principles of ethical leadership
• Ethical Leaders, Managers and Cadres
respect others: Leaders who show respect
in fact treat others as worthy human
being.
• Ethical Leaders, Managers and Cadres
serve others
• Ethical Leaders, Managers and Cadres are
just: Justice demands that Leaders place
issues of fairness at the center or their
decision making.
• Ethical Leaders, Managers and Cadres are
honest:
These Leaders tell the truth. They never lie &
they are open with others.
• Ethical Leaders, Managers and Cadres build
community:
They take into account the purposes of everyone
involved in the group or community.
Servant Leaders vs Self-Serving Leaders: In
ethical leadership, leaders, managers and cadres
should be servant leaders, managers, cadres and
not self-serving leaders, managers and cadres.
4.3. Ethics and History
History is a human science with anti-values (untruth, willing
falsifications, lies etc.). This is a result of negative ideology of people
who look for ways to justify the acquisition of wealth and people’s
interests.
Let us give some examples: Slave trading treaty
EUROPE

Sugar and other Clothes, jewels

Products and bracelets

AMERICA AFRICA
Black slaves, ivory, gold
The truth concerning this shameful trade of blacks during 3 centuries (16th -18th)
is that it was practiced mostly by white people.
• Source of modern sciences
• The history of all the modern sciences shows that it
were Greek Scientists (Socrates, Aristotle, Plato,
Archimede, Phytagore,…..) who were the source to
modern sciences.
• This is a serious history falsification whose objective
was to show the white race supremacy.
• In fact, the works of the great African scientist
(Cheikh ANTA DIOP) and his team have proved in an
International Colloquium organized by UNESCO that
these so-called Greeks were students in ancient
Egypt, where only black people lived. Their teachers
were black priests (educators) (cf. Antériorité des
Civilisations Noires by Cheikh ANTA DIOP).
The Hamite (Nilotic) myth and the Bantu myth
 These two myths are the result of ethnic ideology
created by the colonizer in the Great Lakes region.
 It has developed and been transformed into
genocide ideology with consequences like wars,
massacres and genocide in that region (Great
Lakes).
 The colonizer’s objective was to divide and rule.
 The historical falsification consists of the statement
that a group of Rwandan people living on their natal
land since millennium is presented as a foreigner.
These are TUTSI to whom several
names have been given: “Hima, Nilotic,
Couchit, Hamites, etc.”).
Archaeological excavations carried out
in Rwanda and Burundi prove that this
region is inhabited since, at least, the
7th century BC. Population owed its
subsistence to products of their three
professions: cattle-raising, agriculture
and ceramics” (MUZUNGU B., 2009: 67)
Another group of the population, notably
BAHUTU is presented as the natives, belonging
to BANTU people, docile people, innocent, less
intelligent, hard workers, submissive, etc.
These two myths were well arranged at
political level, in the administration, in schools,
in churches, in order to emphasize this ethnist
ideology which has ended by anti-values such
as ethnic hatred, intolerance, exclusion,
violence, massacres, and finally generalized
genocide in 1994 (cf. part II of this course).
Correction of Hamite (Nilotic) and Bantu myth
a) Correction of the Hamite myth/ Tutsi myth
Tutsi are one of the components of the
Rwandan people since ages.
All oral, archeological sources and the carbon
14 dating show the evidence that they are
Rwandans just as the Hutus and the Twa.
b) Correction of the Bantu myth
The Bantu people do not exist. There exist
banyarwanda, barundi, baganda, banyoro,
baluba, bakongo, etc.
 The term [-ntu (plural = Bantu)] was introduced
by William BLEEK in 1855’s when he was
conducting a study about the languages of
Namibia whose words had the common nominal
theme –ntu.
Therefore, the term –ntu is purely linguistic and has
no ties with ethnicity and less with the race.
For P. Alexandre quoted by André MARTINET (1968:
138). “Should we repeat it?
Yes, we should. We have to do it for a long time.
Let us resay it : there is no-bantu race, there is no-
bantu civilization, customs. as in savannahs”.
There exist only Bantu languages, just as there are
Semitic languages in Asia Minor and Indo European
languages.
Eg: In Kinyarwanda
u-mu-ntu = person
u-ku-ntu = the way of doing
i-ki-ntu = thing
a-ha-ntu : place or location
“Bantu” is a linguistic and technical term invented by
linguists for the needs of their discipline. Bantu
languages are spoken by people of great, medium and
small heights by farmers, cattle breeders and hunters
from mountains as well as valleys, thick forests as well
4.4. Ethics and Entrepreneurship
4.4.1 Introduction
As the most powerful economic force and the
backbone of the economic development of
mankind, The word “entrepreneurship” is used
to mean different things such as: starting of any
business; the development of a new and novel
idea, whether that development takes place in
the context of start-up or an existing business.
Entrepreneurship is first and foremost a mindset
and an art of finding creative profitable solutions
to problems.
 The successful entrepreneurs are those who
inject imagination, motivation,
commitment/engagement, tenacity, passion,
integrity, teamwork, and vision into their
companies.
 These ethical values are so important for the
successful entrepreneurship.
4.4.2 The role of entrepreneurship in the society
 Entrepreneurship is essential for economic
development.
 In capitalistic economies, the entrepreneurs
play an important role in their development.
 People have now begun to realize the crucial role the
entrepreneurs have to play for achieving the goal of
economic development.
 They are regarded as the prime movers of innovations
and act as key figures in economic development of a
country.
 Thus, entrepreneurship:
a. helps the formation of capital by bringing together the
savings and investments of people;
b. provides large-scale employment opportunities and
increases the purchasing power of the people;
c. promotes balanced regional development in the
country;
d. pays different taxes to Government.
The role of entrepreneurship (cont’d)
1. Economic role
a) Households level
Entrepreneurship helps in problem solving by:
 creating jobs,
 creating demand and supply for new products and services,
 developing creative and innovative activities,
 developing skilled and semi-skilled workers.
b) National level
Entrepreneurship helps the Government:
 increase economic growth,
 reduce unemployment by creating lots of jobs,
 extend distribution channels for products and services’
 expand national market by diverse sectors of activities,
The role of entrepreneurship (cont’d)
2. Social role
a) Households level
Entrepreneurship helps households:
 improve health,
 increase education,
 increase family peace and tranquility.
b) National level
Entrepreneurship helps Government:
 creating an informed society: people are aware of issues that
affect them and help Government in democratization
process,
 creating social cohesion,
 creating enterprise culture,
 improving security: people are busy with creative activities.
4.4.3 Characteristics of an entrepreneur
An entrepreneur is a highly achievement oriented,
enthusiastic and energetic individual, who has the
following characteristics.
 1. Entrepreneurs are action oriented, highly
motivated individuals who take risks to achieve
goals;
 2. Entrepreneurs will have strong determination and
commitment. They are creative and result-oriented.
They work hard in return for personal and financial
rewards;
 3. Entrepreneurs accept responsibilities with
enthusiasm and endurance;
 4 Entrepreneurs have self-confidence, they are
dedicated, setting self determined goals and
markets for their ideas responding to existing
market;

 5. Entrepreneurs are both thinkers and doers,

planners and workers;

 6. Entrepreneur depends on the intelligence,

imagination and strength of purpose of the
individual.
[Link] of a successful entrepreneur
Essential qualities of entrepreneurs are as follows:
 1. Success and achievement: The entrepreneurs are self
determined to achieve high goals in business.
 2. Risk bearer: Entrepreneur accepts risk. They select a
moderate risk situation, rather than avoiding risk, they
understand and manage risk;
 3. Opportunity explorer: Always entrepreneur identifies
opportunities. He seizes opportunity and converts them
into realistic achievable goals.
 4. Perseverance: Entrepreneur makes extreme efforts
and work hard till the goal is successfully accomplished.
[Link] of a successful entrepreneur (cont’d)
 5. Independence: as job giver and not a job seeker,
entrepreneurs like to be their own master and want to be
responsible for their own decision.
 6. Flexibility: Entrepreneur makes decisions based on the
prevailing situations. Successful entrepreneurs do not
hesitate in revising their decision.
 7. Planner: Entrepreneur frames realistic business plans and
follows them rigorously to achieve the objectives in a
stipulated time limit.
 8. Self confidence: Entrepreneur directs his abilities towards
the accomplishment of goals with the help of his strengths.
 9. Motivator: Entrepreneurs influence and initiate people and
make them think in his way and act accordingly.
4.4.5 Problems faced by entrepreneurs
A business enterprise comes into existence due to the pioneering
efforts of entrepreneurs.

However, entrepreneurs face several issues and problems while

giving shape to their idea such as:

a. Selection of business: There is a need of feasibility study

b. Choice of business enterprise form: The size of the business will
determine the form of organization
c. Financing: It’s the problem that used to trouble entrepreneur
d. Location: It’s another issue to be considered
e. Size of the unit which depends on several factors such as
finance, market
f. Suitable manpower which depends on the size of business
4.5.6. Customer care
Customer care is a very important component of a successful
entrepreneurship.

Four steps to effective customer relations:

1. Greeting the customer with enthusiasm and a big smile;

2. Filling the customer's need with your product or service;

3. Ensuring customer satisfaction with your product or service.

4. Thanking the customer for his business and invite him back.

N.B: Entrepreneur is requested to apply 4 S: S as smart, S as smile S as

speak well and S as serve
In order to satisfy customers, you have to first identify customers' needs,
4.4.7. Effective customer relations
The Customer is always right.
1. An employee must deal with the right customer's
perception of a product/service than with the product itself.
2. Look for a win-win situation with each customer.
3. If the customer is always right both the company and the
customer win.
4. The concept that the customer is always right deals with
ego dignity relationships. It does not mean that essential
company rules and policies are violated to protect the
customer’s ego.
Communication with customer must be open, honest and
timely
The 10 commandments of customer relations

1. The customer is King the most important person in any

business treat him (them) as such
2. The customer is not dependent on us we are
dependent on him (them)
3. The custom is not an interruption to our work but the
reason for it
4. The customer does us a favour when they call we are
not doing them a favour
5. The customer is not there to argue with but to
accommodate
6. The customer presents his/her need, it is our
duty to meet that need
7. The customer is deserving of our most
attentive treatment we can give, so give it
8. The customer is part of our business not an
outsider
9. The customer is the person who pays our
salary so value his/her relations
10. The customer is the life-blood of any
organization without them there is no
business
4.5. Ethics and Law
Ethics is in relationship with the law. Some laws are right
others are wrong; some are good morally speaking, others
are bad.
These types of evaluations are very current and are moral
evaluation of the laws.
Similarity and difference between moral rules and laws
 Similarity:
• Morals are composed of rules that are applied to human
actions. This is also the case of law.
• Natural rules are shared by both, morals and laws
• It’s true that sometimes the same action can be prohibited
by both the law and our moral conscience; therefore, the
internal and external aspects can be combined.
 Moral rules are distinguished from the laws in three ways:

• First of all, we cannot state that such moral rule is no longer valid
and will be replaced by another, like it’s the case with the laws.
We often listen to the following declaration: if the Government
can declare that “Amstel” beer dealing is not illegal; it will never
say that ill-treating others is no longer immoral.

• A second particularity that distinguishes the laws from moral

rules is illustrated by the fact that a person cannot decide for
his/her own laws but can decide for his/her own moral rules.

• Finally, violation of laws, in general, results to an external

punishment, such as a fine, a prohibition or imprisonment,
whereas violation of one’s own moral rules produces an internal
punishment. We become sorrowful.
 Interactions between laws and moral rules
• Sometimes public opinion compels the legislator
to adopt laws in a given domain.
• In this case, changes in public opinion can cause
the adoption or the modification of the laws.
• One can think that in the last two years, sexual
aggression of ladies and the pressure from the
public opinion were the cause for much more
severity of the law against sexual aggression of
ladies in Rwanda.
• But the opposite may also happen. A law
modification may bring about change of moral
mentality.
 4.6. Ethics and education
• The word education involves moral values. In fact, to educate
is to help someone reach his/her full moral, social, scientific,
intellectual, physical and professional development.
• Moral education must be a foundation of everybody, each
family, each community, each society and each nation.
• Without moral education man becomes inhuman and
savage.
• Moral education must be given at the levels of formal
education (from garden school to university), informal
education (unschooled people) and popular education
(sensitization of people through media: radio, television, etc.)

• A human being greatly needs to live a life full of moral values

so that he may accomplish his ideal, his happiness and his
mission on the earth and before his Creator.
4.7. Ethics and sexuality
• Sexuality may be defined as an attraction
of a man and a woman to each other for
a mutual completion.
• In fact, neither the man nor the woman
is complete alone.
Valued sexual relationship has a double
sense:
biological (procreation)
Psycho-physiological (mutual attraction
satisfaction and response to impulsive
desire, i.e. sexual instinct.)
• Speaking of true love, the philosopher VAN
PARYS states that interpersonal
relationship between the couple consists
of the exchange of ideas, working together,
mutual understanding, family projects
realization, feelings and tenderness
manifestation and finally sexual
intercourse.
Marriage
It’s a civil, customary and religious act by
which a man and a woman establish a union
between themselves.
Types of marriages
a) Customary marriage: it consists of a
commitment between 2 people of different
sex following customary procedures. The
dowry is considered as the condition of this
type of marriage. The acceptance of the
dowry is a proof of the agreement of the girl’s
The dowry is symbolic; it should not be
transformed into a commercial operation.
b) Legal (civil) marriage: this is concluded in
front of a registrar and is automatically followed
by the change of the couple’s marital status.
c) Religious marriage: it takes place in front of
God’s representatives depending on the
religious fellowships of the couple.
N.B: Polygamy, bigamy, polyandry, biandry are
types of marriage to avoid because they
compel love to be shared and to vanish.
 Marriage property
• Normally, there are 3 kinds of marriage
property management.
• Marriage settlement based on separate
ownership of property: each one of the couple
has his/her property up to the end of their life
• Marriage settlement based on common
properties acquired after marriage: each one of
the couple keeps what he/she had before the
marriage separate from what they got after the
marriage.
• Marriage settlement based on joint ownership
of property: everything is shared, all the
properties belong to the couple.
• Marriage is a complete union between two
people; how can you think about separate
ownership of property? or about communal
estate comprising only properties acquired
after marriage?
• The ethics that is looking for couple’s real
welfare recommends the marriage settlement
based on joint ownership of property.
Functions of the family

[Link] function: The family institution

produces procreation. This gives it a fair and solid
condition. It guarantees the perpetuation of the
human race and gives satisfaction to the genesis
instinct of reproduction.
2. Educational function: when the parents are
aware and conscientious enough of their duties,
the family is an ideal place for the child’s
education.
3. Economic function: the family is condemned to
maintain its own existence thanks to the couple’s work.
In addition, this function refers to good management of
family resources for the welfare of their children and
for the progress of the country.
4. Social function: social cellular, basis of the society;
the family constitutes a community where the children
practice social life. Therefore, a family should not
isolate itself. It should be opened, be interested to
social life, to inter family problems, to issues of national
interest on the civic, cultural and political point of view.
5. Spiritual and moral function: the family should be
spiritual beyond carnal love.
• Sexual debauchery
Consequences of sexual debauchery: intercourse
outside the marriage has 4 consequences:

 the spiritual consequence: sin, separation

from God

 the psychical consequence: mental trouble

(regret, internal suffering and painful spot on
the moral conscience)
social consequence: creation of a
bad habit of having sex with
anybody; this habit will certainly
continue after the marriage

Physiological consequence:
pregnancy, dangerous diseases
(AIDS).
2) Major types of sexual debauchery:
• Trial marriage (an advance): this
practice is found in several ethnic
groups in Africa. It consists of allowing
the young lady to go and live with her
fiancé.
• After a period of time:
depending on each ethnic group, the
boy and his family may decide either
to get married to the girl or not.
It’s important to underline that this practice
did not exist in Rwanda culture.
Abstinence before marriage was a golden
rule.
The most important consequence of sexual
intercourse before marriage is that the
lady’s dignity is in danger, and most often
the young boy looked for scapegoat to get
rid of the fiancée (the poor girl was often
abandoned, pregnant in a difficult
situation).
• Fornication: it is sexual intercourse
between unmarried people
• Adultery: it is an extra marriage affair
sexual intercourse.
• Prostitution: it is offering sex for money as
a result of poverty or materialism.
• Homosexuality (lesbianism: women): it is a
sexual deviation which consists of
relationship between two people of the
same sex.
Methods of Birth control Artificial methods:
condoms (Prudence), pills (to be taken every day
in order to avoid pregnancy).
Natural methods: they consist of abstinence
from sexual relationship during the woman’s
fertility period
Premarital consultation: It consists of medical
check-up between the future couple. Nowadays,
there is an important reason due to sexual
debauchery: to check for sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs) and mainly AIDS (Acquired
Immunity Deficiency Syndrome).
Summary of Part I: Happy Life
1. Be Conscience (Moral) Heart Ethical Principles&
Values
Foundation of a successful life

Regulator

2. Knowing (Competence to store knowledge in the brain)

3. Performing Brain (To put it in practice)

Complete Education= 1+2+3 A successful happy Life

Science without conscience is a failure
• 4.8. Exercises

• 1. Talk about the role of ethics in education.

• 2. What’s the secret of happiness in marriage?

• 3. What’s your opinion about sexual debauchery?

• 4. What do you think about birth control methods?

• 5. Talk about the importance of pre-marriage medical consultation.

• 6. What do you think about the conflict existing between Ethics and Sciences (bio-
ethics: (euthanasia, pollution, heart transplantation)?

• 7. Explain the relationship between ethics and leadership

• 8. Comment on the relationship between Ethics and History.

• 9. Comment on the relationship between Ethics and Law.

• 10. Is ethics important for a political organization? Explain.

• 11. How does ethical Leadership contribute to a sustainable political organization?

• 12. Discuss briefly the characteristics of a servant Leader/Manager/Cadre.

• 13. Discuss briefly the characteristics of a self-serving Leader/Manager/Cadre

• 14. What is entrepreneurship?

• 15. Discuss the characteristics of an entrepreneur

• 16. What do you know about the qualities of an entrepreneur

• 17. Discuss problems faced by entrepreneur

• 18. What do you know about Customer Care and how to manage customers

• 19. Discuss about Effective Customer relations

Individual Assignment Topics of Ethics Module

Topic 1: Everyone is requested to answer briefly

at 5 questions by choice to exercises provided
in the four first chapters of the module.

Topic 2: What is deference between morals,

Ethics, culture and Civic Education.

All the best

Part Two: Rwandan Culture and Civic Education

Chapter 5: Rwandan Culture and Civic Education of the

Pre-Colonial Period (- 1897)

The effective colonization of Rwanda started on 23rd

March 1897.

5.1 Some data characterizing the period

 Thanks to some oral and written sources that we have

some data about pre-colonial period. The
archaeological excavation and carbon 14 dating
The main oral traditions that constitute a source to
historical political and socio-economical facts of Rwanda
according to KAGAME, A. (1972: 9-17) are :
1. Esoteric code (Ubwiru):
The code was an equivalent to the constitution and secret
laws mostly for inheritance and King’s enthronement.
This was always enhanced by historical comments always
hidden.
2. Genealogical poems (Ubucurabwenge):
These poems were very important in a culture without
scripture, and a solidarity culture.
3. Dynastic poems (Ibisigo by’abami)
Some poems date from far before the 14th century
4. King’s tales (Ibitekerezo by’abami)
These tales date back to GIHANGA period (1091)
In a very recent research done by a team of seven University Professors
(Prof. BYANAFASHE Déo et al, April 2011:16-25) other sources of data and
information are mentioned:
 War poems (ibyivugo);

 Pastoral poems (amazina y’inka);

 Popular songs, proverbs, etc.;

 Material sources (archeological sites, monuments, iron tools site, etc.);

 Written sources from the beginning of the colonial period;

 Audio-visual sources from the beginning of the colonial period.

5.2 Pre-Gihanga period (- 1091)
The great Lakes region which comprises of the south of Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi, the West of Tanzania and the East of D.R.
Congo, had been occupied since millennia by agricultural and
pastoral groups.

The larger family groups were ruled by charismatic patriarchs

called ABAHINZA (small kings).

As a matter of fact, each family group had its charismatic leader

(i.e. a chief nominated regarding his exceptional values: integrity,
justice, compassion, courage, heart nobility, etc.).

So, many researchers state the millennial settlement of clans that

are still found today in the Great lakes region and in Rwanda.
Ex. The ABASHAMBO clan, the ABAZIGABA clan, the ABABANDA
clan, the ABARENGE clan, etc.

According to Joseph KI-ZERBO and Alexis KAGAME, the clan is one

of the native clans (ABASANGWABUTAKA) skilful in cow raising and
wells making (see KAGAME Alexis 1972: 27).

It must be noted that these clans living in segmentary communities

involved HUTU, TUTSI and TWA.

As earlier on, stated by Bishop KANYAMACUMBI Patient (1995:

315); “the presentation of HUTU and TUTSI in ethnic and racial
terms and at the beginning in Hamite myth is an old stereotype.

It is really urgent to get rid of such an erroneous anthropological

and historical vision.
HUTU and TUTSI TERMS ORIGIN
First Hypothesis: Toponyms [Bishop KANYAMACUMBI Patient
(1995: 55-68)]
The connection of the term “HUTU” to the place name “Udhu”
which exists up to today in Uganda, is mentioned by a few
researches.
Family groups from Udhu origin came to settle in Rwanda, Burundi
and the East of the DR Congo and adopted the name Baudhu or
simply “Bahutu”, i.e. from Udhu origin.
The Udhu region is a longer wide, costal plain located along the
RWERU (Victoria) Lake and is attached to Rwanda by Akagera river.

Those Udhu people are characterized by a great dynamism for

agriculture.
Similarly, the connection of the term TUTSI to a place name NTUTSI,
archeological site of North-East of BUNYORO, has also been mentioned by
several researches.

They state that the Tutsi people migrated probably in search for pasture
and for their identification; they took the name of “Bantutsi”, from Ntusi
origin.

The hypothesis that connect the term “Hutu” to “Udhu” and the term
“Tutsi to “Ntusi”, both places in Uganda, help understand long dated
cultural unity between “Bahutu” and “Batutsi”.

Thus, we can mention the main clans in the South of Uganda, in the East of
Kivu, in Rwanda and in Burundi have the same elements of HUTU, TUTSI
and TWA. Ex. ABEGA, ABASHAMBO clan, ABANYIGINYA clan.

No case of conflict between HUTU elements and TUTSI elements has been
identified during that long period of thousand years.
The 2nd Hypothesis: Hutu and Tutsi as social class

HUTU, TUTSI and TWA, as social classes (Alexis KAGAME 1979:1975; Privat
RUTAZIBWA 1995, Alison DES FORGES 1999).

“During the “UMUGANURA” ceremony, a basket full of first fruits of sorghum

was the main thing to be carried in procession and it had the same value as
the royal drum KALINGA.

In the early period, a well identified Muhutu, the one living in the royal house
and who got military training, carried the basket up to the king’s place.

This proves that social classes conception in Rwanda has always been in the
core part of the socio-economic life of the country.

Those Tutsi who lost their wealth were obliged to integrate Bahutu’s class
(agriculturers), as well as those who were fortunate to gather a lot of wealth
integrated Tutsi’s class (wealth possessor).
5.3. Period of GIHANGA and First six Kings (1091 – 1312)

Different sources, especially, written sources, Gihanga is the founder of

ABANYIGINYA Kingdom (Kagame, A. 1972: 39): That clan’s totem is the crane
(umusambi).

The esoteric code of Rwanda devotes enough remembrance to the existence of

that 1st monarchy with a drum, a harmer and a musical instrument called
NYAMIRINGA as monarchic symbols.
GIHANGA Ngomijana’s children who were well known and who were confirmed by
esoteric code (Kagame, A. 1972: 44-45) are:

Kanyarwanda, Kanyandorwa, Kanyabugesera, Rutsobe, Kanyabungo.

The six kings who reigned after GIHANGA are qualified “Belt kings” [Abami
b’umushumi (Kagame, A., 1971:54)].

Their power was not centralized, besides their small kingdom, there were strong
and self-governing entities which were led by small kings such as KIMENYI for the
GISAKA, and NSORO I for the BUGESERA.
5.4. Rwanda as a Nation (1312 – 1897)
Initially, Rwanda was a small sector around GASABO hill
at Muhazi Lake in Gasabo District.
Rwanda as a Nation was founded between 1312 and
1345, under Ruganzu I Bwimba, 8thKing.
This nation was called Urwanda Rwa Gasabo; it had 5
territories: Buganza, Bwanacyambwe (Kigali) Buliza,
Busigi and Busarasi (Bumbogo).
These territories had their Kings, NKUBA was the King
of Bwanacyambwe (Kigali), MIGINA was the King of
Buriza and SAMBWE was the King of Busarasi/Bumbogo
(BYANAFASHE Deo et al.2011:88-89).
Other clans (Abasinga, Abega, Abaha, Abakono,
Abazigaba and Abatsobe) were closely
associated to Abanyiginya clan the founder of
the Rwandan Kingdom (BYANAFASHE Deo et
al.2011:86).
5.5 Territorial conquests
According to Harold G. & Marcus D. (2015), the
growth of the country was progressive:
In the 14th century: Bugesera enclave,
Mageregere– Kigali–Nyamweru mountains, were
annexed to Urwanda rwa Gasabo.
In the 15th century: conquest of principalities in
the North of Nduga Kingdom, conquest of Nduga,
Kigali, Buberuka, Bukonya, Bugarura, Bwishaza and
Murera.

In the 16th century: RUGANZU II NDOLI (1510-

1543), the 14th King (Alexis KAGAME, 1972: 98-
108). He is without doubt the most popular King of
Rwanda.
His popularity made him become a mythical and
legend character. It is said that amazing cavities in
rocks have been printed by his feet; the cliffs on
hillsides are the results of his sword strikes, etc.
The truth is that King RUGANZU II NDOLI was a
charismatic king and the one who moved very far
the borders of Rwanda as seen said below:

According to the writings done by LECGER L.

(1939:6), BOURGEOIS R. (1953:38) and SPITAELS R.
(1953:110), former Commissioner of KIVU District,
following the Regional Border Delimitation
Agreement of 1912 between British and Belgians,
Rwandan provinces of Bufumbira and South of
Kigezi were given to Uganda and the territories of
Rutshuru, Goma and Masisi were given to DR
Congo.
In the 17th century: the conquest of NDORWA kingdom with
bigger part in today’s Uganda.

In the 18th century: annexion of BUGESERA kingdom and

the conquest of BUYENZI region.

In the 19th century: annexion of GISAKA kingdom.

The pre-colonial period ended with the reign of king Kigeri

IV Rwabugiri, the 24th King of Rwanda, from 1853-1895.

He enhanced all the borders of great Rwanda and continued

to annex more area up to his death in September 1895
(Alexis Kagame: 13- 104).
5.5.1. Constitution of a State-Nation
From Ruganzu I Bwimba’s period, in 1312, to
Kigeri IV Rwabugiri, the 24th king, Rwanda was
progressively formed as independent, sovereign,
powerful and prestigious State-Nation: a well-
controlled territory, a bound together people
with national consciousness, a strong army for
national sovereignty defense, existence of a
solid socio-political institutions, the
acknowledgement of the State-Nation by other
States as sovereign.
5.5.2. Political Administrative Institutions

The King was above all: This symbolized the National Unity and
stability.

From GIHANGA in 1091, up to the colonization of white people, in

1897, a kingdom of ABANYIGINYA clan had ruled for more than 8
centuries (805 years) without being interrupted.

Unlike the argument by other authors who wrote about Rwanda, the
power in Rwanda was not absolute and no internal contradiction in
kingdom reported, it was moderated by several institutions such as:

the Queen and her team of counselors; the team of esoterically code
keepers (Abiru); the King’s counsellors’ team; the chiefs of pastures
(abatware b’umukenke); the chiefs of the lands (abatware
b’ubutaka); the chiefs of the armies (abatware b’ingabo) and the
5.5.3. Cultural Unity and Nation Consciousness of Rwandan people
Even before the constitution of the State-Nation in 1312, Rwandan people belonged
to the same clans.
Therefore they had the same culture, the same language, the same customs, the
same beliefs.

The three components of Rwandan people (HUTU, TUTSI and TWA) were aware of
being only one and unique people: IMBAGA Y’U RWANDA or BENEKANYA-RWANDA.

During wars for expansion or for defending their country Hutu, Tutsi and Twa, all
used to go in different battles in order to defend courageously the honour of their
homeland, Rwanda.

Because of that national consciousness, and the ethic values no case of war is
mentioned between these 3 components of Rwandan people during the whole pre-
colonial period (thousands of years).

Indeed, according to many researchers on traditional Rwanda, especially

d’HERTEFELT M. (1971), VANSINA J. (1962) and NEWBURY D. (1980) MUZUNGU B.
(2009), Rwandan clans have been composed by what has been from the colonial
period called HUTU, TUTSI and TWA as confirmed by the following chart
 NAME OF CLAN HUTU (%) TUTSI (%) TWA (%)
1 ABANYIGINYA 58.50 41.50 -
2 ABASINDI 88.16 11.52 0.32
3 ABEGA 74.38 25.07 0.54
4 ABASINGA 93.48 6.25 0.26
5 ABASHAMBO 63.07 36.70 0.21
6 ABAGESERA 93.57 5.87 0.54
7 ABAKONO 32.57 67.43 -
8 ABATSOBE 54.96 43.40 1.63
9 ABAHA 19.90 78.15 1.94
10 ABABANDA 94.12 4.98 0.88
11 ABAZIGABA 93.92 5.53 0.53
12 ABACYABA 87.14 12.76 0.08
13 ABUNGURA 95.94 3.69 0.48
14 ABARIHIRA 99.52 0.27 0.19
etc.
5.5.4 Criteria of human values of responsibility and of competences in
power sharing

The chiefs of lands, of pastures and of armies, as well as the King’s and
the Queen’s counselors were carefully selected on the basis of the
criteria mentioned above.

Very often, those counselors were patriarchs of their clans, and they
were confirmed to their new post by the King.

Contrary to arguments of specialists of wrong ideology, the valuable

element of HUTU and BATWA social classes had great responsibility.
Bahutu were part of ABIRU (esoterically code keepers, KAGAME, A.
1975:195).

“But there was another category called spokesperson of the tradition.

This was mainly made of ABIRU whose family (Bahutu and Batutsi)
Examples below are proof of sharing power

The Queen’s special counselor, the great chief

SERUTEGANYA, from the HUTU social class, was an
important personality in the royal court (Kagame, A.,
1975:30-35);

The great chief of the armies Ingangurarugo, in Kigeri

IV Rwabugiri period, was called Bisangwa, he was also
from the HUTU social class (Kagame, A., 1975:19);

The chiefs of the lands were Hutu subjects, mostly in

North-Western part of the country (Bugoyi, Bushiru,
Bukonya, etc.)
5.5.5 The socio-economic institutions called
“Ubuhake” and “Ubukonde”
UBUHAKE: the cow was the central part of the
socio-economic life (this system was mostly
practiced in the center and the south of the
country).
UBUKONDE: the land was the central part of the
socio-economic life (this was especially practiced in
the North and the North-West of Rwanda).

Several researchers (RUTAZIBWA, P. 1995, KAGAME

A, 1975:214-216 and BYANAFASHE Deo et
al.2011:127) give advantages of those institutions
Ubuhake and Ubukonde;
The clients’ advantages (abagaragu)
The clients (abagaragu) received goods from their
patrons (cows for ubuhake and lands for ubukonde).

The client (umugaragu) got protection from his boss.

The client got his children taken care of and his wealth
been protected by his boss’s clan.

The creation of close and more or less family

relationships between patron and client.

This was shown by gratitude feeling expressed by word

of honour (kwirahira).
The patron’s advantages (SHEBUJA)

The 1st advantage is the honour and pride of having many people
under control (this gave him importance in the society);
Secondly, the patron received services from his clients (cows
keeping, agriculture, message dispatching, etc.).

The UBUHAKE and UBUKONDE institutions were presented as a

social hierarchical organization system involving all the constituents
of Rwandan people. The social pyramid was not built referring to
ethnic membership but rather to wealth possession. The UBUHAKE
and UBUKONDE institutions were founded on WORK CONVENTION
basis. They were not forms of serfdom.

At the level of the clans, the workers or the clients (Abagaragu:

Hutu, Tutsi, Twa) were bound to their bosses by moral values and
their sincere fidelity and gratefulness (kwirahira).
5.5.6 The education
Pre-colonial education was really integral; complete (moral,
social, political, professional and physical education). It was
accomplished at 3 levels:

Family level: here, the basic moral education was given from
childhood (kubaha, gukunda…)
Clan level: social and cultural education was given by clan
members (young girls were sent to their aunts, and young
boys were sent to their paternal uncles). This practice had a
positive role; furthermore, it gave power to clan over an
individual;
The education at the level of courts and palaces
(Amatorero): This education was given to young people
selected by their respective clans.
5.5.7 Economy

The Rwandan pre-colonial economy was generally characterized

by food self-sufficiency at both family and clan levels. Clan
solidarity was practiced in agricultural domain (common
farming:Ubudehe); and even in breeding, clan members kept
their cows together (Ubushyo: troupeau de vaches).
Complementarily of economic activities and exchange system
between different products. Ex: Sorghum exchanged with
sweet potatoes, Ishabure exchanged with ibishyimbo.
Iron craft industry
This industry has helped Rwandans to develop agriculture,
breeding (spear, arrow, weapons for defense against wild beast)
as well as the extension of their territory thanks to the weapons
provided to different battalions
5.5.8 Gacaca Justice
This is a traditional way of conflicts resolution under guidance and
supervision of the elders and the patriarchs; the two parts should
come to real reconciliation:
• the guilty part should acknowledge the quilt (kwemera icyaha);
• he/she would repent and ask for forgiveness;
• he/she would repair the matter;
• finally, the conflict was uprooted (gutsinda ikibi/icyaha no
kunga ababuranaga).
5.5.9 Traditional religion
The religion was based on one God, Imana Rurema. People used to
pray and invoke LYANGOMBE, BIHEKO and BINEGO rites
(KUBANDWA) only for intercession. At the family level, the
blessings and the prayers were executed with GUTEREKERA rites.
This traditional religion had an important value of clan cohesion
because the salvation was collective.
5.6 Negative aspects of the pre-colonial period : Intrigues
(Amatiku)
The intrigues took place in some great chiefs’ palaces and on the
royal court.
They were well planned, well presented, with a lot of parties and at
their end there were arrestation and execution of accused people.
Intrigues Examples:
 The counselor named SERUTEGANYA as he was popular in the
royal court, he was involved in an intrigue of love with the
Queen-mother of KIGERI IV RWABUGIRI
 Tragic events of RUCUNSHU (December 1896) where the king
RUTALINDWA, his brothers, his counselors, some Abiru and
other part-takers died.
 The attacks launched on White people by the great chief and
battalion commandant BISANGWA of INGANGURARUGO. He
died in that attack, so did almost all the people of his battalion.
5.6.2 Lack of respect to UBUHAKE and UBUKONDE conventions
It has been noticed that some patrons (SHEBUJA) had non-respect to
their conventions with their clients.
Another mentioned case was expropriation of clients’ properties
(KUNYAGA).
The other negative aspect of UBUHAKE and UBUKONDE institution is
that there was no way for private initiative and the social freedom and
mobility were restricted. We may notice that cases of non-respect of
convention were limited.
5.6.3 Internal conflicts
Internal conflicts within the clans (interest conflict during property
sharing or succession) would sometimes rise and produce displacement
and running away of some clan members.
Those conflicts were not ethnic, but rather economic.
This is the case of clans like BANYARWANDA living in the North Kivu
and BANYAMULENGE (especially Abanyabyinshi) living in the South
Kivu.
Conclusion

There was no region for Hutus, no region for Tutsis or Twas.

All of them had a mixed housing. They helped one another

based on being neighbours (and there is a say that
"neighbours give birth to children who look like each
other").

In a few words, before the White People's arrival, all

Rwandans had unity which was based on one King and
patriotism, spoke the same language, had the same culture,
the same belief and tried hard to be in peace and live
together, completing each other in their daily needs.
CHAPTER 6. RWANDAN CULTURE AND CIVIC EDUCATION OF
THE COLONIAL PERIOD (23/3/1897-01/7/1962).

6.1. Some data Characterising the Period

 1884 (Oct.) – 1885 (febr.) : Berlin conference : Africa has been

shared among European powers, France, England, Germany,
Portuguese and Spanish.

 1894 (May) : Count VON GÖTZEN, General Governor of

German Eastern Africa (TANGANYIKA), came to Rwanda on
4th May, 1894 accompanied by a caravan of 362 people
including 127 well armed soldiers.

 He was received by King KIGERI IV RWABUGIRI on 29th May

1894 (Alexis KAGAME 1975: 95).
 1895 (sept): Death of King KIGERI IV RWABUGIRI (24th
king).

 1896 (dec): Tragic event of RUCUNSHU (Alexis KAGAME,

1975:108-126). Death of the King RUTARINDWA.

 1897 (February): Enthronement of MUSINGA YUHI V

(25th king).

 1897 (March 23rd): official German occupation by Hans

RAMSAY with German flag and accreditation letter given
to the King Yuhi Musinga’s cousin and Representative
MPAMARUGAMBA (BYANAFASHE Deo at al.2011:190).
 1900 (February): arrival in Rwanda of the Catholic
Congregation of white Fathers headed by Bishop
[Link],founder of the first catholic mission at SAVE
(HUYE District) in 1900; and then at ZAZA (1900),
NYUNDO (1901), MIBIRIZI (1903),RWAZA (1903),
KABGAYI (1905), RULINDO (1908), RAMBURA (1910)
and KIGALI (1912) (BYANAFASHE Deo at al.2011:211).

 1906-1916: German colonization establishes indirect

administration regime, i.e. the traditional power was
maintained.

 1907 (November 15th): Dr Richard KANDT was

appointed as Imperial Resident to Rwanda.
 1910 (May 14th): Delimitation of borders when the
Kingdom of Rwanda lost the whole regions of Bufumbira (in
Uganda), Bwishya, Gishari and Idjwi (in Democratic
Republic of Congo).

 1914-1918: The First World War.

 1916 (June 16th): German defeat and occupation of

Rwanda-Urundi by Belgium.

 1916-1962 (July 1st): Belgian colonization

 1926-1930: The period of important politico-administrative

reform planned and applied by Belgian colonial authority in
order to change totally the structures of the country.
 That reform was applied in details by the Belgian Resident (Governor)
MORTEHAN and the Catholic Bishop CLASSE. The fundamental
elements of those reforms were:

 1° Abolition of the trilogy of traditional power (the chiefs of pastures,

the chiefs of the lands and the chiefs of armies were dismissed) by
Belgian colonial authority (see RUTAZIBWA, 1995, p.23), Alexis
KAGAME (1975: p.183).

 2° The king was deprived of his real power, he was under the Belgian
Resident’s authority.

 3° The demobilization of all the Rwandan armed forces

 4° The new territorial limitation in order to forget the old politico-

administrative organizations.
 Training of auxiliaries to Belgian authorities
selected only from TUTSI aristocracy families (of
colonial obedience and candidates to catholic
baptism).

 Lets us quote this passage from Dr

HABUMUREMYI Pierre Damien(2013:27):
 «In the years from 1926 to 1931, with the
political and administrative MORTEHAN reform,
the HUTU and Tutsi of modest origin and the Twa
were removed from command positions in favour
of the Tutsi aristocracy from big noble families,
often of mother or father dynastic lineage»
 1931 (Nov 12th): the dismissal of king YUHI V MUSINGA and
his banishment to Kamembe, RUSIZI District. (KAGAME A,
1975:182).
 1931 (Nov 16th): the nomination (and not the
enthronement) of King MUTARA III RUDAHIGWA without
any esoteric code keeper, any symbol of kingship and
without any presence of mother-Queen (KAGAME A,
1975:194).
 1934-1935: Officialization (institutionalization) of ethnic
ideology with general census of the whole Rwandan
population and giving of identity card with ethnic mention
HUTU, TUTSI or TWA.
 Each person having 10 or more cows was identified as
TUTSI.
• 1940-June 20th: transfer of king YUHI V MUSINGA from KAMEMBE
to MOBA in the Congo, where he died in prison in unclear
circumstances on 22nd November 1944.

• 1943-October 17th: in order to keep his power, king MUTARA III

RUDAHIGWA finally accepted to be baptized and took the first name
of CHARLES LEON.

• 1946 (December, 13th): Rwanda was placed under UN trust

Territory,in conformity to UN General Assembly’s approval
(BYANAFASHE Deo et al.2011:328).

• 1954: King MUTARA III RUDAHIGWA abolished obligatory work

(UBURETWA) and beatings (IKIBOKO) introduced and imposed by
the Belgian colonial authority. He suppressed UBUHAKE and
UBUKONDE systems because of the Belgian authority’s criticism.
Each Rwandan kept his properties (Alexis KAGAME, 1975:205-206).
• 1955: Bishop DEPRIMOZ replaced by Bishop
PERRAUDIN André.
• 1956: creation of a scholarship fund called
MUTARA III RUDAHIGWA Fund (KAGAME A,
1975:233).
• 1957(March 24th): Under the influence of
Bishop PERAUDIN André, a document entitled
“Bahutu manifest” was elaborated about
administrative monopole by Tutsi.
• 1959:
• February: creation of the party APROSOMA (Association pour la
Promotion Sociale de la Masse).

• ii. April 29th: King Mutara Rudahigwa’s speech to CSP(Conseil

Supérieur du Pays i.e. High Council of the Country)
• “Je pense pouvoir vous assurer, Monsieur le Président, que le
Rwanda désire participer largement à la gestion de ses propres
affaires et, prendre le plus rapidement possible, la direction de ses
destinées….Je souhaite que la Belgique nous comprenne et nous
aide à réaliser un Rwanda fraternel et prospère” (BYANAFASHE Deo
et al.2011:368).
• Translation:
• “I think I may assure you, Mr. President, that Rwanda wishes to
participate in a large extent to the management of its affairs and to
take as soon as possible the direction of its destiny…I wish that
Belgium would understand and help us to develop a prosperous
• In his research, MUZUNGU, B .(2009: 67) says that “The deep
political changes that occurred in Rwanda in 1959 were the plan
of the Belgian Tutelage”.
• The truth is that they didn’t want to give independence to
nationalists led by the King MUTARA III RUDAHIGWA that is why
they fought them through PARMEHUTU Party.

• open conflict between the king Mutara RUDAHIGWA and

Belgian Authority (KAGAME,1975:239).

• open conflict between the king Mutara RUDAHIGWA and

Catholic Church represented by Bishop PERRAUDIN.

• iii. July 25: mysterious death of the king MUTARA RUDAHIGWA

(KAGAME, 1975: 248-255).
iv. July 28: - the King’s burial at Mwima/Nyanza District.

 Population’s refusal to burry the King before they knew his

successor; RUKEBA François, a Hutu subject, proclaimed KIGELI V
NDAHINDURWA J. Baptiste and this was against the Belgian
colonial authorities’ will (KAGAME, 1975: 261).

v. September: - creation of the party RADER (Rassemblement

Democratique Rwandais with the chief
Prosper BWANAKWELI
 creation of the party UNAR (Union Nationale Rwandaise) a
monarchist party led by François RUKEBA (Hutu) with Michel
RWAGASANA (Hutu) as a General Secretary, cousin to Grégoire
KAYIBANDA, President of PARMEHUTU party (KAGAME, 1975: 265).

vi. October: creation of PARMEHUTU (Parti du Mouvement

d’Emancipation Hutu) with the President Grégoire KAYIBANDA.
November 1st: Because of the pretext that some elements of Tutsi
youth beat MBONYUMUTWA, one of the PARMEHUTU Leaders, the
revolution, massacres or simple the beginning of genocide, have
broken out against all the Tutsi living in the country.
• N.B. * Revolution is defined as a radical change of political power
and its replacement by a new revolutionary power. In 1959, the
Belgian authority who had all the political power was not troubled!!
• Let us remind that in 1959” Rwanda was still under colonial rule,
and power was in the hands of the colonial administration and not
in those of the Tutsi aristocracy.
• More importantly for them, these changes did not generate
positive developments in society.
• Instead, they produced the total disintegration of Rwanda and led
to wars, genocide a systematic extermination of a human group
because of their ethnic, regional, religious, racial, identity), social
exclusion and exile” (Dr HABUMUREMYI Pierre Damien 2013:40)
1961 (25th September): legislative elections, victory of PARMEHUTU,
abolition of monarchy and proclamation of the Republic in
GITARAMA.
1962 (July 1st): proclamation of national independence: the Belgian
authority is replaced by the new Republic Government.

6.2. Negative aspects of the colonial period, 22/3/1897 - 01/7/1962

6.2.1. Destruction of Rwandan Nation State

• Amputation of an important part of Rwandan territory [all the
part of Northern Ndorwa, Bufumbira, were handed over to the
British Empire ; the part beyond volcanoes (RUCURU, MUSHARI,
NGOMA(GOMA), MASISI, a part of KAREHE) were attached to the
DR Congo].
• Amputation of Rwandan population living in these regions
mentioned above.
6.2.2. Abolition of politico-administrative unity
• The abolition of the trilogy of power (chiefs of pastures,
chiefs of lands and chiefs of armies).
• Dismissal of all the charismatic traditional chiefs (HUTU,
TUTSI and TWA) Abolition of King’s power.
• 6.2.3. Progressive division of Rwandan people
• Introduction of ethnic ideology officialized in 1934 by
giving identity cards containing the ethnic mentions Hutu,
Tutsi, Twa.
• Creation of Hamit and Bantu myths
• The king’s deprived from the political power and
banished to Kamembe then to Moba (Katanga, RDC)
where he died; his son was never enthroned but
nominated by Belgian colonial authority.
6.2.4. Destruction of clan solidarity and the national
conscience
• Dismissal of patriarch chiefs of clans
• Division of clans by ethnic ideology as well as hamite
and Bantu myths Official defamation of UBUHAKE
and UBUKONDE institutions
6.2.5. Replacement of traditional values by anti-values
• Ethnic hatred between Hutu and Tutsi Lies and
falsification of historical facts Injustice, intolerance
and discrimination
• Culture of violence and anti-values introduced by
colonial authority (public insults, whips, prisons,
obligatory work…)
• 6.2.6. The colonial economy

• During colonial period, new crops (coffee, tea,…) in

accordance to colonizers’ needs were introduced to
the detriment of local population farming.
• Large plots of sorghum fields, etc. were transformed
to coffee, tea and plantations, similarly pastures
were transformed to coffee, tea… plantation.
• Obviously, this caused regular famine, such as
Rumanura (1916-1918)and Rwakayihura (1928-
1929) which was responsible for about 80,000
deaths ( BYANAFASHE D. et al.2011:298).
6.2.7. Abolition of GACACA conflict resolution.
This traditional resolution of conflicts was replaced by the
European justice with courts having the negative
consequences:
 the hatred between the two parts is reinforced
 aggravation of the conflict
 the defeated part undergoes psychical, moral and
physical tortures (frustration, humiliation, whips, etc.).

6.2.8 Traditional education replaced by instruction

• The instruction was full of falsifications (ethnic ideology,
division …) and wanted to form auxiliaries to Belgian
colonial authority.
6.2.9. Ubuhake and Ubukonde institution was Replaced by a
Savage System of fatigue duty (obligatory, unpaid work and
whip) (RUTAZIBWA, P. 1995, P.2 )
Fatigue duty, whippings, etc. were attributed to TUTSI
administrative auxiliaries.
6.3. Positive values of colonial period
1. Construction of roads. Unfortunately this was not done in a
good way (fatigue duties and the use of torture and whips).
2. Building of offices.
3. Introduction of some modern products (cloths, vehicles,
shoes for some people, etc.).
4. Introduction of writing and education for a small group of
people.
5. Introduction of modern medicine
CHAP 7. RWANDAN CULTURE AND CIVIC EDUCATION OF THE
POST-COLONIAL PERIOD (01/07/1962 – 04/07/1994)

7.1. Some data characterizing the period

1962, July 1st: National Independence Day of Rwanda, Gregoire
 KAYIBANDA, the first President was the son of Rwamanywa, grandson
of Rwabanyiga from BUSHI in CONGO (MUZUNGU B.2009:66)
1963, December : The Rwandan refugees (UNAR) attack the
country from Burundi.
 Mass reprisals against Tutsi throughout the country, case of genocide
in Gikongoro (Nyamagabe District).
«A plan of massacres of remaining Tutsi was formulated and put into
practice in 1963. The death toll was estimated at more than 12,000
people (men, women and children), followed by a new wave of Tutsi
refugees totaling over 200,000 people. » (Dr. HABUMUREMYI Pierre
Damien 2013:47)
1966 : Unique party PARMEHUTU installation and prohibition of
other political parties

1973, February : New anti-Tutsi violence, new TUTSI refugees towards

neigbouring countries.

1973, July 5th : Coup d’Etat by Major General Juvenal Habyarimana,

 Son of Ntibazirikana Jean-Baptiste from Bufumbira Uganda who

came as a cook of the white Fathers who founded the Catholic
Mission of Rwaza in Musanze District (Muzungu, B.2009:66). After
they moved to Rambura Mission in Nyabihu District.

July 5th 1975 : Creation of MRND (Mouvement Révolutionnaire

National pour le Développement), a unique party.
1987, December : Creation of RPF-INKOTANYI (Rwandese
Patriotic Front) in Uganda

1990, October 1st : RPF’s attacking Mutara(Nyagatare District).

Genocide against Batutsi in KIBIRIRA
(Ngororero District) and BIGOGWE
(Nyabihu District) in Gisenyi prefecture.

1991, June: Multipartist constitution.

Creation of new opposition political parties; the 3
main ones are MDR, PL, PSD.

1992, April : 1st transition Government from opposition, led by

the Prime Minister Dismas NSENGIYAREMYE of
MDR.
1993, February : Major offensive by RPF-INKONYANYI due to
massacres of Tutsi in Gisenyi and Ruhengeri
(RUBAVU, NYABIHU and MUSANZE Districts).

1993, April : Creation of RTLM (Radio Television Libre des

Mille Collines).

1993, July : Opposition Government led by UWIRINGIYIMANA

Agathe of MDR.

1993, August 3rd–4th: Signature of Arusha agreement

between RPF-INKOTANYI and Rwandan
Government.

1993, December 28th : Arrival of RPF-INKOTANYI authorities and

their battalion in Kigali, especially in CND building
(Parliament)
1994, January – 05th April: blockage to Arusha agreements
application
1994, April 6th : The president’s aircraft was destroyed by a
ground to air missile, close to Kanombe airport
Death of the President Juvénal HABYARIMANA
Rwanda and Cyprien NTARYAMIRA of Burundi
and their delegations;

1994, April 7th: “At the beginning of April 7, 1994, raids and
assassinations began in Kigali.
It targeted all Tutsi and those Hutu who represented the opposition
and supported the Arusha Peace Accords: ministers, judges, priests,
journalists, democratic activists who did not rally to the logic of ‘Hutu
power’, they were all dully listed and often killed with the rest of their
families”(Jean Pierre CHRETIEN, quoted by Dr. HABUMUREMYI Pierre
Damien 2013:94)
1994, April 8th: New Government led by Dr Sindikubwabo
Theodore (MRND) the President and Kambanda
Jean the Prime Minister (MDR).
1994, April-July:

• Genocide: Systematic elimination of Tutsi. A well planned, and

well executed project

• War : there was war between two armed groups fight each other
(RPF-INKOTANYI against Governmental forces FAR +
INTERAHAMWE Militiamen)
• Massacres: blind killing, i.e. unsystematized unplanned a
head of time.

• N.B. Complicity of International Community with UN Forces of

2534 soldiers led by General Romeo DALLAIRE present in Rwanda
(BYANAFASHE Deo et al.2011:544)
7.2. Negative aspects of post-colonial period
7.2.1. Reinforcement of division among Rwandan people
 Ethnic ideology always officialized (identity card with mention
(HUTU,TUTSI, TWA) ethnic quota or equilibrium system in the
administration, in schools, in politics, etc.
 Introduction of regionalism (Northern:ABAKIGA against Southern:
ABANYANDUGA)
Reinforcement of hamite myth
 The Tutsi, referred to hamite people are presented as foreigners who
must go back to their homeland (see J.P. CHRETIEN, 1995).
 The Tutsi are seen as devilish people whose extermination is a
national duty.
 The Hutu are asked to get together with other Bantu people of the
Central African Countries in order to prepare a final battle (against
the Hamites Tutsi, invaders) (cfr Newspaper KANGURA, and as well
as RTLM: Radio Television des Milles Collines).
 Reinforcement of intolerance and exclusive culture.

• 7.2.2. Reinforcement of impunity and violence culture

 The killers and those who burned houses belonging to Tutsi
were nominated to politico- administrative posts as a
reward.

• 7.2.3. Bad Education

 Ethnic and regional discrimination within the education

system
 Insertion of the ethnist ideology and falsification of
historical facts in the manual of History
 Lack of good policy of education system well adapted to
national needs;
7.2.4. Reinforcement of dictatorship

 The officialized culture of greed.

 National property was transformed to private prosperity

of some families closely related to presidential family
(AKAZU).

 Posts distribution according to subjective criteria

(belonging or faithfulness to Akazu, i.e. the click around
the power).

 The parliament and judicial system were both muzzled.

7.3. Positive aspects of post-colonial period
7.3.1. Infrastructure development
 Almost all the main roads were asphalted;
 Buildings: Parliament, ministries, hospitals, etc.
 Sensible amelioration of housing grass houses replaced by tiled or
metallic roof houses. Unfortunately, the housing was scattered.
7.3.2. Some actions of development
 Reforestation. Very important for ecology and climatology of the
country. Agriculture amelioration.
 Selected seeds were available for agriculture (PNAP, ISAR : potatoes,
maize), use of agricultural intrant and chemical products.
 Amelioration of people’s health.
 Building of several health centers and even hospitals. Installation of
industries (industrial park).
 Development of tourism: Akagera and Volcanoes national parks,
NYUNGWE forest and GISHWATI forest.
CHAP.8. RWANDAN CULTURE AND CIVIC EDUCATION OF THE
POST GENOCIDE PERIOD (July 1994- )
• N.B. Rwanda of July 1994 was a torn up country.
• There was no nation.
• Rwandan people were deeply affected.
• There were only survivors, traumatized people, widows,
orphans, repatriated people, refugees, in short a vulnerable
population.

• 8.1. Some data characterizing the period.

• July 1994: The RPF INKOTANYI stopped the genocide on a
great part of the country, except one part of the Western
Province (former CYANGUGU and KIBUYE) and one part of the
Southern Province (GIKONGORO).
• Occupation of the above mentioned parts by French troops
under Turquoise Operation.
04/07/1994 : RPF-INKOTANYI took Kigali City with a big part of the
Country.

19/07/1994 : Official installation of coalition and

transitional Government.

August 1994 : Departure of French troops of Turquoise Operation.

Arrival of MINUAR 2

• November 1994 : Official opening of primary and

secondary schools Setting up of transitional
Parliament
• April 1995 : Closing of KIBEHO camps for displaced
people Opening of National University of Rwanda

• September 1995 : Dismissal of the Prime Minister Faustin

TWAGIRAMUNGU (MDR) and 4 other Ministers.
Nomination of new Prime Minister P. Celestin
October 1995 : Installation of Supreme Court and
Judicial Power.
March 1996 : End of MINUAR’s mandate.
November 1996 : Mass return of 1994 refugees (MUGUNGA,KATALE,
KIBUMBA camps) from DRC (Democratic Republic
of Congo)

March 1997 : Change of President and Vice-President of transitional

Parliament.
January 2000 : Resignation of the President of Parliament (PL) and
election of a new one.
February 2000 : Resignation of the Prime Minister (MDR) and
nomination of another Prime Minister (MDR)
March 2000 : Resignation of the President of Republic (RPF), Pasteur
BIZIMUNGU
April 2000 : Election of a new Transitional President of
Republic (RPF), Paul KAGAME
May 2003 : Referendum on the new Constitution.
June 4, 2003 : Publication of the new Constitution, end of
the transitional period.
August 25, 2003 : Presidential democratic election by
universal suffrage.
September 2003 : Deputies and Senators elections.
October 2003 : Appointment of the members of the
Government.
January 2006 : The country is restructured in 4 provinces
(Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western
provinces), 30 districts and 416 sectors.
March 2006 : Election of the members of decentralized
entities (Villages, Cells, Sectors, Districts and
City of Kigali).
July 1, 2007 : Rwanda’s official admission to East African
Community (EAC)
September 2008 : Deputies’ election (second mandate)
March 08, 2010 : Rwanda’s official admission to
Commonwealth (54th country)
August 09, 2010 : Presidential election by universal
suffrage
February, 2011 : Election of the population Representatives of
decentralized entities (Villages, Cells, Districts
and City of Kigali).

September 26-27, 2011: Election of Senators

October 07, 2011 : Swearing in of the New Prime minister
Dr HABUMUREMYI Pierre Damien,
Ministers and States Ministers
October 10, 2011 : Swearing in of Senators (beginning
of the second mandate)

January 5, 2012 : Publication of the Expertise Report on the

destruction of the President HABYARIMANA
Juvenal’s aircraft, by Nathalie Poux and Marc
TREVIDIC, French Judges in collaboration with
various experts.
The extremist group around President HABYARIMANA is responsible
of that tragedy.

September, 2013 : Third multi-party parliamentary elections.

July 23, 2014 : Appointment of Honorable Anastase MUREKEZI as

Prime Minister.
.
18th December 2015 : Referendum on the constitutional
amendment drew the backing of 98% of
those who voted

February, 2016 : Election of the population representatives of

decentralized entities (Villages, Cells, Sectors,
Districts and City of Kigali).

August 4, 2017 : Presidential Election of His Excellency Paul KAGAME

August 30, 2017 : Appointment of Honourable Prime Minister Dr.

Edouard NGIRENTE

January 21, 2018 : H.E. Paul KAGAME: nominated President of

African Union
8.2. Period of transition (1994-2003)

8.2.1 Reinforcement of national security

 The post genocide Government of July 19, 1994,

 the Government of coalition, unity and reconciliation had the
principal mission of strengthening security in the country.
 As a matter of fact, inside the country, killers were supported by
French foreign forces in Cyangugu, Gikongoro and Kibuye.

 The French soldiers were present in the country by the name

of “Turquoise operation”

 The camp of the Kibeho (Gikongoro) displaced was full of

genocide forces (Interahamwe militia and the defeated
soldiers).
• At the borders of the country, the same genocide forces set up
their camps of MUGUNGA, KIBUMBA and KATALE in the DRC.

• These forces continued to be supplied with arms and were

trained.

• The new Government and its army had no more choice.

• Thus, all those camps came to be closed up through the use of
arms not without consequences; namely the 2 wars of Congo
(18/10/1996-17/05/1997 and 02/08/1998-17/09/2002) in order
to reduce almost to nil these genocide forces and their allies.
• The other threat was from the inside: that from the infiltrated
genocide forces between 1997-1998.
• The latter were completed defeated and the country entered a
period of peace and stability from 2002.
• 8.2.2 Vision 2020
• Between 1998-1999, the Presidency of the Republic organized at
village URUGWIRO many reflection meetings on the future of the
country.

• On basis of the expressed ideas in these meetings, the Ministry of

Economy and Finance elaborated a document entitled «VISION
2020».

• The process of enriching this document started on November 20,

2001, with a workshop regrouping national and international
experts, sent by the United Nations Economic Commission
(UNEC).

• In May 2002, two seminars were held at Kigali regrouping experts,

the Political class, Academics, Representatives of the Civil Society
and the private sector, Churches in order to validate the final
document of vision 2020.
It is during these seminars that national priorities were
organized into a hierarchy, pillars and transverse domains of
VISION 2020.

• PILLARS OF VISION 2020

1. Good governance and a capable state

2. Human resource development and a knowledge based
economy
3. A private sector-led economy
4. Infrastructure development
5. Productive and Market Oriented Agriculture
6. Regional and International Economic integration.
CROSS-CUTTING AREAS
1. Gender equality
2. Protection of environment and sustainable natural resource
management
3. Science and technology, including ICT.
8.2.3 Poverty Reduction Strategies Programme (PRSP)
 The Government has set up some poverty reduction strategies
in all sectors (productive, social and political).
1. Agriculture
 The agricultural sector has known an average growth of 4.2%
during the period from 2002 to 2005, less than the target
growth of 5.3%.
 Food cultures have known a slow production. Exportations such
as coffee and horticulture have come to a good growth.
 Setting strategy for creating non agricultural employments.
2. Private sector
The private sector has recorded an important growth especially in
industry, construction and services sectors.
3. Infrastructure
The most important roads (big national roads) have been improved, but
there is still a lot to do in order to improve the state of roads in rural areas.
4. Education
Access to education has been improved with a schooling rate of 92% in
primary schools. The educational sector has been backed by sponsors,
notably at primary school levels. The sector of secondary schools and
higher learning and university has also know a great improvement.
5. Health
Since the year 2002, health indicators showed great deal of progress, a
death rate among children, mothers’ death rate was reduced and HIV/AIDS
has been reduced.
Launching of the health mutual scheme (mutuelle de santé) in all the
sectors of the country and nurses in rural areas went from 20% to 56%.
8.2.4 17 Sustainable Development Goals
Countries including Rwanda successfully achieved MDGs;

MDGs (2000-2015)

Building on MDGs experience, they are now implanting

the following 17 Sustainable Development Goals to be
Millennium Development Goals, MDGs (8)
1. Combat poverty and hunger,
2. Illiteracy,
3. Combat discrimination against women,
4. Infant mortality,
5. Promoting maternal Health,
6. Disease (HIV & Malaria, other diseases),
7. Ensure sustainable development ( combat
Environmental degradation)
8. Global partnership
SDGs, One of the main outcomes of the Rio+20 Conference
8.2.5. Decentralization
The consultation on decentralization started between 1996 – 1998.

But it is during the meetings organized by the Presidency of the

Republic at village URUGWIRO between 1898-1999 that the
decision of decentralizing the Government’s central power was
taken.

Objectives of decentralization:

 Giving opportunity to the population to participate to the

governance of their administrative entity;

 Having administrative organs which deal with the inhabitants

problems (social, economic, etc.);

 Having flexible, effectives and efficient, administrative structures

Decentralization principle:
 Giving the power to basic organs in order to solve the inhabitants,
administrative entity’s problems;
 Giving autonomous administration and financial management to the
District.
 Using information Technology (ICT);
 Regrouping similar tasks in a service for a better effectiveness (group work).
Implementing decentralization:
 In 2000: Election of the members of basic organs (cells and sectors).
 In 2001: Election of the members of District organs.
 In 2006: Territory restructuring and Election of Representatives of local
entities.
 4 provinces (Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western) and the city of
Kigali (Capital City of the country)
 30 districts
 416 sectors.
 In 2011: Elections of Representatives of Local entities
• 8.2.6. The national commission for unity and reconciliation

• The National Commission for Unity and Reconciliation is an independent

national institution set up by the Law nº 03/ 99 of 12/ 03/ 1999. This Law
has been modified and completed by the law nº 35/ 2002 of 14/ 11/
2002.
• The constitution of 04/ 06/ 2003 in its article 178 highlights this
commission among other commissions and specialized organs.
 Mission of the commission :

 1. Conceive and coordinate the national programme for promoting unity

and reconciliation;

 2. Set up and develop ways and means for restoring and empowering
unity and reconciliation among Rwandans;

 3. Educate and sensitize the Rwandan population for unity and

4. Conduct research, organize debates, diffuse ideas and
advertise on national peace, unity and reconciliation;

5. Formulate suggestions on better actions which can root

out divisions among Rwandans and strengthen national
unity and reconciliation;

6. Denounce and fight against the acts, the writings and

language able to convey any form of discrimination,
intolerance and xenophobia;

7. Draw out an annual report and every time it is needed

on the situation of national unity and reconciliation
(report to the President of the Republic and the Senate).
• Organs of the commission :

 The Council of the members of the commission comprises 12 commissioners

and it is the supreme organ of the commission for unity and reconciliation;
 The executive committee is composed of a President, a Vice – President and an
executive secretary;

 The permanent secretary who is under the leadership of the executive secretary.

• This secretariat includes 3 departments:

 1. The Department in charge of civic education;

 2. The Department in charge of peace consolidation, conflicts prevention and

resolution;

 3. The Department in charge of administration and finance.

8.2.7. The national commission for human rights
The National Commission for Human Rights is an independent national
institution established by the Law nº 04/ 99 of 12/ 03/ 1999.
This Law was amended by the Law nº 37/ 2002 of 31/ 12/ 2002. The
Constitution of 4th June 2003 in its article 177 stresses the National
Commission for Human Rights duties and responsibilities:
1. to educate and mobilize the population on matters related to human
rights;
2. to examine the violations of human rights committed on Rwandan
territory by state organs, public officials using their duties as cover, by
organizations and by individuals;
3. to carry out investigations of human rights abuses in Rwanda and filing
complaints in respect with the competent courts;
4. to prepare and disseminate an annual and other reports as may be
necessary on the situation of human rights (addressed to Parliament)(the
two chambers)
8.2.8. GACACA Jurisdictions
The organic Law n°40/2000 of 26 January 2001 has set up
GACACA courts.
This law has been revised by the law n°16/2004 of 19th June
2004 then by the law n°10/2007 of 01/03/2007.
In its article 152, the Constitution of 04/06/2003 puts GACACA
courts among Specialized Courts.

GACACA courts are responsible for the trial and judgment of

cases against persons accused of the crime of genocide and
crimes against humanity which were committed between
October 1st 1990 and December 31st 1994.

Categories of the accused

Art 11 of the Law n°10/2007 of 01/3/2007:
• First category:

 Planners, organisers, incitators, supervisors and

ringleaders of the crime of genocide or crimes
against humanity ;

 Any person who, at that time, was in the organs of

leadership, at national, prefecture, sub-prefecture
and commune levels, leaders of political parties,
members of high command of army and
gendarmerie, etc. ;

 Any person who committed acts of rape or sexual

torture
• Second category:

 Any person whose criminal acts or criminal participation place

him/her among the killers or authors of serious attacks causing
death ;

 The person who committed acts of torture ;

 Any person who injured or committed other acts of serious attacks,

with intention to kill.

• Third category:

 Any person who only committed offences against property

 It is important to mention that United Nations Security Council
adopted on 08th November 1994 the Resolution N° 955 creating of
8.3. Development period (04/06/2003-)
This development period under the new Leadership of
Rwanda is characterised by many features:
 Good Governance;
 Implementation of the Vision 2020;
 Implementation of the Programme of Unit and
Reconciliation;
 Introduction of the Institution of Civic and Cultural
academy “ITORERO”;
 Introduction of the project one family, one cow
“GIRINKA”;
 Establishment of popular courts “ GACACA”;
 Introduction of the community development work
“UMUGANDA”;
 Community participatory and planning “UBUDEHE”

 Establishment of community mutual health insurance

scheme “MITUWELE”;

 Introduction of performance contracts ”IMIHIGO”;

 Establishment of local mediation committee ”ABUNZI”;

 Nine years basic education and after twelve years basic

education;

 Promoting infant and maternal and maternal health;

Etc.
1. The Legislature
The Legislative power is vested in the Parliament consisting of
two chambers: the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate (Art.
64).
 The Senate has the specific function to, supervise the
application of the major principles of the Constitution (Art. 84
and 10 ).
 The Senate shall also have the authority to (Art. 86):
 Elect the President, the Vice-President and Judges of the
Supreme court, the Prosecutor General of the Republic and his
Deputy;
 Approve the appointment of the chairperson and Members of
National Commissions, the Ombudsman and his Deputies,
Ambassadors, etc.
• 2. The Executive

 The Executive Power is vested in the President of the

Republic and the Cabinet (Art. 97).
 The President of the Republic is the Head of state.
 He is the guardian of the Constitution and guarantees
national unity, the independence and territorial integrity
of the country (Art 98).
 The election of the President of the Republic is by
universal suffrage through a direct and secret ballot (Art.
100).
 The Cabinet comprises the Prime Minister, Ministers and
state Ministers.
 The Prime Minister is nominated and removed by the
President of the Republic (Art. 115)
3. Political Organizations
A Multi-party system is recognized.

 Political Organizations fulfilling the conditions required to

operate freely; they must abide by the constitution and other
Laws as well as democratic principles and they should not
destabilize the national Unity, the territorial integrity and the
security of the nation (Art. 59)

 Political organizations are prohibited from basing themselves

on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, region, religion, sex or any
other division which may give rise to discrimination (Art. 54).

 The President of the Republic and the Speaker of the Chamber

of Deputies must belong to different political organizations.
 The President of the Republic and the Speaker of the Chamber of
Deputies must belong to different political organizations.

 Political organizations officially recognized in Rwanda do

organize themselves in a consultative Forum. This Forum is
mainly responsible for (Art. 58):

 facilitating exchange of ideas by political organizations on major

issues facing the country;

 consolidating national Unity;

 acting as mediators in conflicts arising between political

organizations;
etc.
• 4.
4. Fundamental Principles (Art. 10)
The state of Rwanda commits itself to conform to the following
fundamental principles and to promote and enforce the respect
of:
 Fighting the ideology of genocide and all its manifestations;
 Eradication of ethnic, regional and other divisions and promote
national unity;
 Building a state governed by the rule of law, a pluralistic
democratic government, equality of all Rwandans and between
women and men reflected by ensuring that women are granted
at least thirty per cent (30%) of posts in decision making organs;
 building a state committed to promoting social welfare and
establishing appropriate mechanisms for ensuring social justice;
 etc.
5. Special Commissions and Organs

There are hereby established Commissions and specialized Organs

with responsibility of helping in resolving major issues facing the
country (Art 139):

 The National Commission for Human Rights;

 The National Unity and Reconciliation Commission;

 The National Commission for the fight against genocide;

 The office of the Ombudsman;

 The office of the Auditor general of state Finances;

 Etc.
8.3.2. 7 Year- Government Programme (2017-2024)
 The main inspiring source of the Government’s Action Plan is
the President of the Republic’s agenda during the 2017
presidential elections compains.
 Bellow are the four main domains of the Government's action
plan:

I. GOOD GOVERNANCE

1. Political administration 2. Social mobilization

3. Laws to promote development 4. National security
and sovereignty
5. Foreign affairs 6. Youth development
7. Gender development 8. Civil society
development
9. Media development
 II. JUSTICE
1. Genocide cases and ideology [Link] human
rights
III. ECONOMY

1. Agriculture and animal 2. Improved settlement

resources

[Link], Industry and Tourism 4. Infrastructure

5. Private sector development, 6. Land, forestry,
cooperatives environment and natural
and investment resources

7. Information & Communication Technology

IV. SOCIAL WELL- BEING

1. Labour promotion

2. Health and population growth control

3. Protection of vulnerable people

4. Sports and leisure

5. Education, research and technology & culture

8.3.3. The office of the Ombudsman
The Office of the Ombudsman is an independent public institution (Art
139 of the Constitution).
Its responsibilities include the following:
 Acting as a link between the citizen and public and private
institutions;
 Preventing and fighting against injustice, corruption and other
related offences in public and private administration;
 Receiving and examining in the above mentioned context, complaints
from individuals and independent associations against the acts of
public officials or organs, and private institutions and to mobilize
these officials and institutions in order to find solutions to such
complaints if they are well founded.
 Receiving the faithful declaration of assets of the state authorities
(The President of the Republic, Ministers, State Ministers, Senators,
Deputies, High Ranking Officers Army and Police, Governors, Mayors,
etc.)
8.3.4. The national commission for the fight against genocide
The National Commission for the Fight against genocide is an independent
national organ. Its responsibilities include the following (Art 139 of the
Constitution):
 to organize a permanent framework for the exchange of ideas on
genocide, its consequences and the strategies for its prevention and
eradication;
 to initiate the creation of a national research and documentation
centre on genocide;
 to advocate for the cause of genocide survivors both within the country
and abroad;
 to plan and coordinate all activities aimed at commemoration of the
1994 genocide;
 Etc.

• This Commission submits, each year, its programme and activities

report to the parliament and to the Cabinet.
EDPRS 1(2008-2012) and EDPRS 2 (2013-2018)

The three major programmes of EDPRS 1 are:

1. Sustainable Growth for the jobs and exports, aimed at boosting Growth
(private sector investment and innovation, agricultural productivity,
exports, etc.

2. The Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme (VUP) aimed to address extreme

poverty in rural areas.
3. Good Governance emphasizing peace and security, promoting national
unity and reconciliation, human rights, the rule of law and decentralization.
The three cross sectoral actions and programmes (Cross-cutting issues) to
achieve EDPRS targets are:

1. Gender
2. HIV/AIDS
3. Environment
KEY EDPRS results Indicators (Source: EDPRS: Lessons learned, 2008-
2012, MINECOFIN, pages 12-13) ( See details Notes P.91)
• During EDPRS, GDP growth rate has increased at an average rate of
8.5% exceeding the anticipated requirement of 8.1%.
• This was achieved against the backdrop of the world economic
crises that affected fuel and food prices as well as the financial
sector.
• The World Bank Doing Business reports indicate that Rwanda
improved its world ranking by 81 positions from 139th in 2008 to
58th in 2011.
• Named the world’s top reformer of business regulation in the Doing
Business 2010 report at 67th position, the country continued to
improve its world ranking in 2011 reaching 57th position out of 183
countries. It earned the reputation of “a consistent reformer”.
• The reforms included: starting a business, registering property,
protecting investors, trading across borders, and accessing credit
that contributed to improving Rwanda’s investment climate.
EDPRS 2 (2013-2018)

 This Second Economic Development and Poverty Reduction

Strategy (EDPRS 2) is a five years plan designed to accelerate
the progress already achieved and to shape the country’s
development in the future.

 It was built on those policies from EDPRS 1 which have been

effective in accelerating growth, creating employment and
generating exports.

 In addition, EDPRS 2 was to innovate determinedly to

strengthen policy and strategy approaches to ensure
continuing achievement by more engagement of the private
sector
• Five Lessons to Build on from EDPRS 1
 Ownership of the EDPRS by a wide range of stakeholders
at national level has been a key factor of success making
it a useful framework for all development interventions.

 Home-grown initiatives turned into success stories in

strengthening delivery of EDPRS 1.

 These include: Umuganda (community work), Gacaca

(truth and reconciliation traditional courts), Abunzi
(mediators), Imihigo (performance contracts), Inteko
z’Abaturage (citizen forums), Ubudehe (community
participatory planning and problem solving), and Girinka
(one cow per poor family programme).
 • Five lessons (cont’d)
 Community-based solutions, working closely with the
population, have made possible fast-track and cost effective
implementation and increased demand for accountability,
examples are the Agaciro fund (community financed fund) for
self reliance, in education with the 9YBE construction of
classrooms, land consolidation and use of fertilisers under the
Crop Intensification Programme (CIP) in agriculture, improved
health status of the population as a result of adhering to health
mutuelles, and community health workers.

 Use of ICT solutions improved service delivery. Some of the

biggest successes in service delivery and investment climate
reforms have centred on ICT solutions such as online registration
of businesses, online filing of tax claims, a rapidly evolving
financial sector embracing new and innovative IT products, an
electronic immigration service, driving license applications etc.
 EDPRS 2 will be motivated by 5 Guiding Principles
1. Innovation For instance: Doing what we already do better or
faster will not be sufficient to achieve Rwanda’s
ambitious targets
2. Focus on Thematic groups reflect cross- governmental
emerging priorities priorities that will drive achievement of Vision
2020 targets

3. Inclusiveness and Promote ownership at all levels and create

engagement feedback mechanisms

4. District-led Greater linkage between district and sectoral

development strategies
5. Sustainability Ensure that programs and targets achieved from
EDPRS 2 are long lasting
EDPRS 2 Thematic Areas priorities

• Economic Transformation:

 Diversification of economic base

 Attract large firms – more productive
 Rapid growth of exports
 Infrastructure for business
 Urbanization
 Green economy

• Rural development

 Sustainable rural settlements

 Increased productivity of Agriculture
 Social protection linked to development
 Connecting to markets
 Sustainable energy for rural communities
• Productivity and Youth Employment

 Job creating SMEs in key clusters

 Demand-driven reform to education for transferrable skills
 Remove barriers to off-farm employment for unskilled
 Large firms in labour intensive industries

• Accountable Governance

 Participation and Mobilization

 Quality service delivery
 Public accountability and democratic governance
8.3.6. Integrated Development Programme (IDP) or
Economic Revolution

• This programme is to be inscribed within the outstanding

programme of EDPRS (Economic Development and Poverty
Reduction Strategy, 2008-2012) of MDGs (Millenium Development
Goals, 2015) and those of vision 2020.

• The IDP was conceived in August and September 2007 for achieving
following objectives:

 To ensure food security to the population;

 To get out of dependence and assistance;
 To obtain food excedent and sell them in markets;
 To rehabilitate culture for collective work;
 To promote non-agricultural jobs;
• Etc.
1. Increasing the agricultural and cattle-raising production
 Use of improved seeds;
 Use of natural and chemical fertilizers;
 Use of insecticides and pesticides;
 Clustering, grouping fields following specific cultures;
 Cultivating according to the specialties of each province
and district
 North: Irish potatoes, wheat;
 South : Cassava, coffee;
 East : Maize, bananas;
 West : Bananas, tea, Irish potatoes.
 Modernisation of agriculture and stock farming
(mechanization, genetic improvement, etc.)
• 2. Promoting cooperatives

 Turning associations into cooperatives because the latter

foster interest sharing and participation to management;
 Promoting collective work.

• 3. Promoting non-agricultural jobs (services, handcraft,

commerce, etc.)

 Promoting responsibilities at different levels:

 Local cooperatives (cells);
 Union of cooperatives (sectors);
 Federation of cooperatives (districts);
 Confederation of cooperatives (Provinces and Country)
4. Facilitating loans granting

 Promotion of micro-finances;
 A financial deposit as a mortgage;
 Reducing the interest rate.

5. Promoting habitat

 Grouping houses into villages (imidugudu);

 Localising sites for villages at the level of sectors;
 Advantages: security, easy supervision on the inhabitants, schools,
health centres, potable water, electricity, etc.

6. Promoting environment
 Reforestation;
 Fighting against erosion;
7. Responsibilities of the State’s organs

 Central Organ (Ministry) : policy, strategy, imported material(s);

 Province : coordination;
 District : planning, supervision;
 Sector : sensitisation; dispatching;
 Cell (cellule) : sensitization, distribution, supervision and follow-up.

8. Values

 1. Speed (a country in fast development);

 2. Quality (quality of services and products according to accredited
standards);
 3. Respect for time (time is money);
 4. Completion (finish what has been undertaken, reach the
objectives and results);
 5. Self-confidence/self-respect.
8.4 National Strategy for Transformation (NST1, 2017–
2024)
• Vision 2050 aspires to take Rwanda to high living
standards by the middle of the 21st century and high
quality livelihoods.
• The implementation instrument for the remainder of
Vision 2020 and for the first four years of Vision 2050
will be the National Strategy for Transformation (NST1).
• NST1 integrates far-sighted, long-range global and
regional commitments by embracing:
• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) consisting
of 17 Goals as seen with associated targets and
indicators, across a range of economic, social and
environmental aspects;
• The African Union Agenda 2063 and its first 10-Year
Implementation Plan 2014-2023 which is dedicated
to the building of an integrated, prosperous and
peaceful Africa, driven by its own citizens and
representing a dynamic force in the international
arena;
• The East African Community (EAC) vision 2050 which
focuses on initiatives for job creation and
employment by prioritizing development enablers
which are integral to long-term transformation, value
addition and acceleration of sustained growth;
• The COP 21 Paris Agreement on Climate Change and
other agreements
• Specific priorities and strategies are presented
in different pillars discussed below.
• vision 2050 aspirations focuses on five broad
priorities:
– High Quality and Standards of Life
– Developing Modern Infrastructure and
Livelihoods
– Transformation for Prosperity
– Values for Vision 2050
– International cooperation and positioning
Challenges Facing NST1
 Rwanda is cognizant of the developmental challenges
which will need to be addressed during NST1.
 Economic growth was solid, averaging 6.1% over (2013-
2016) against the target of 11.5% over the period 2013-
2020.
 Growth in all sectors while positive and resilient in the
face of a slowing global economy, did not meet targets.
 Agriculture averaged 4.1% compared to (8.5% targeted),
industry averaged 6.5% compared to (14% targeted), and
services grew by 7.5% compared to (13.5% targeted) over
the same period.
 Agriculture growth was mainly affected by crop diseases
and climate change effects.
 Other constraints included small holding sizes of land,
challenges in accessing credit due to risk perception,
low value chain development, market connectivity
and low farmer professionalization
 External factors such as global market price
fluctuations also affected performance of the
economy.

 Exports have become more diversified, but both

traditional and non-traditional exports performance
have been weaker than projected. Better performance
was observed in services driven by tourism.
 Exports averaged a growth of about 15% between
2013 and 2016, against a 28% annual growth target.
Cross border trade was also affected by non-
tariff barriers in countries like DRC and
Burundi.
Capacity to generate financing for private
sector investment has been constrained by low
domestic savings.
Access to primary education has reached near
universal levels but there has been a mixed
overall performance in education.
 Completion and transition rates at both
primary and secondary levels have not
achieved the set targets.
• OPPOTUNITIES
 Rwanda’s progress has been grounded in favorable
transformational factors in the form of its visionary leadership
as well as the results-based culture, Home Grown Solutions,
security, stability, law and order, and zero tolerance to
corruption among others.

 The country’s demographics provide an opportunity for a

future demographic dividend as the population aged 15-35
and children aged 0-14 accounts for 38% and 40% of the total
population respectively compared to 22% of population above
35 years.

 Rwanda’s membership to regional economic blocs provides

access to bigger market size and increased opportunities for
economic growth.
 Rwanda has potential to develop knowledge-based
sectors building on its strong governance and major
investments already undertaken.

 These include vastly improved air connectivity, a state-of-

the-art conference hub in the Kigali Convention Centre, a
fully developed special economic zone in Kigali, country-
wide fiber optic roll out and rapid adoption of ICT, and a
well maintained and expanding road network in urban and
rural areas.

 Rwanda’s mining, oil and gas potential is still to be fully

exploited while preliminary studies indicate potential
significant reserves in rare earth minerals, petroleum and
gas.
 With nearly 70% of the workforce still in
agriculture, the potential for productivity
gains from structural transformation,
urbanization and industrialization is
significant.
 Agriculture has not reached its full potential
and investments in climate resilient
techniques for farming coupled with
improvements in value chains is expected to
yield significant future gains in both growth
and poverty reduction
PRIORITIES FOR NST1
• Economic Transformation Pillar
 The Economic Transformation Pillar presents a
strategy to accelerate private-sector-led economic
growth and increased productivity. This pillar
entails the following priorities:
– Create 1,500,000 (214,000 annually) decent and
productive jobs.
– Accelerate sustainable urbanization from 18.4%
(2016/17) to 35% by 2024.
– Establish Rwanda as a globally competitive knowledge-
based economy.
– Promote industrialization and attain a
structural shift in the export base to high-
value goods and services with the aim of
growing exports by 17% annually.
– Increase domestic savings and position
Rwanda as a hub for financial services to
promote investments.
– Modernize and increase the productivity of
agriculture and livestock.
– Promote sustainable management of the
environment and natural resources to
transition Rwanda towards a Green Economy
• Social Transformation Pillar
This pillar entails strategic interventions for social
transformation and goes beyond measures such as
GDP per capita to bringing positive qualitative
change in all aspects of people’s lives.
Priorities for this pillar includes the following:
– Promote resilience to shocks and enhance
Graduation from Poverty and extreme Poverty
through improving and scaling up core and
complementary social protection programs.
– Eradicate Malnutrition through enhanced
prevention and management of all forms of
malnutrition.
– Enhance the Demographic Dividend through
ensuring access to quality health for all. Focus will be
on improving health care services at all levels,
strengthening financial sustainability of the health
sector, and enhancing capacity of health workforce.
– Enhance the Demographic Dividend through
Improved access to quality education. Focus will be
on strategic investments in all levels of education
(pre-primary, basic and tertiary), and improved
teachers’ welfare.
– Move Towards a Modern Rwandan Household
through ensuring universal access to affordable and
adequate infrastructure and services.
• Transformational Governance Pillar
The Transformational Governance pillar will build on
the strong governance architecture established over
the aftermath of genocide committed against Tutsi in
1994 to consolidate and provide building blocks for
equitable transformational and sustainable national
development.
The following will be prioritized under this pillar:
– Reinforce Rwandan Culture and Values as a
Foundation for Peace and Unity.
– Ensure Safety and Security of Citizens and
Property.
– Strengthen Diplomatic and International
Cooperation to Accelerate Rwanda and
Africa’s Development.
– Strengthen Justice, Law and Order.
– Strengthen Capacity, Service Delivery and
Accountability of Public Institutions.
– Increase Citizens’ Participation and
Engagement in Development.
The strategy will also prioritize the following
cross-cutting areas:
Capacity Development, HIV/AIDS and Non-
Communicable Diseases, Disability and Social
Inclusion, Environment and Climate Change,
Regional Integration and International Positioning,
Gender and Family Promotion, Disaster
Management.

The macroeconomic framework for NST1 requires

an average GDP growth of 9.1% over the NST1
period for the country to remain on its path of
economic transformation.
This will require considerable efforts in boosting
private and public investment financed by domestic
savings and capital inflows; massive improvements
in education; achieving significant increases in land
efficiency and innovative capacity; and sustained
efforts to boost production of tradable goods and
services.

At the same time, the rising working-age share of

the population should generate gains in per capita
income as Rwanda continues to benefit from a
demographic dividend with a growing labor force,
contributing to high economic growth rates.
RWANDAN VISION 2050

Vision 2050 is the Rwandan national

development strategy, launched in December
2020 by President Paul Kagame and the
country's Ministry of Finance and Economic
Planning (MINECOFIN).
The programme, which follows the previous
Vision 2020 20-year development plan which
rebuilt Rwanda after years of Genocide, aims to
transform Rwanda into an Upper-Middle Income
Country by 2050.
OVERVIEW
Vision 2050's overarching goals were set out as
follows:
1. Economic Growth and Prosperity
Rwanda aspires to become an upper-middle
income country (UMIC) by 2035, and a high
income country (HIC) by 2050.
Specifically, this means realizing the following
key economic targets:
• By 2035: GDP per capita of over USD 4,036;
and
• By 2050: GDP per capita of over USD 12,476
2035, and into a High-Income Country by 2050.
President Paul Kagame stated: "Vision 2020 was
about what we had to do in order to survive and
regain our dignity. But Vision 2050 has to be about
the future we choose, because we can, and because
we deserve it."
2. High Quality and Standards of Life for Rwandans
The aim is to achieve high quality and standards of
living.
Rwanda will build on the strong progress made in
reducing poverty over the last two decades, reducing
the poverty rate from 78% after 1994 to 38% in
2017, with the aim of eliminating poverty altogether.
This will be achieved through ensuring all walks of
society have increased opportunities to contribute to
national development, including by growing investments
in human capital and ensuring universal access to
amenities, safety and security.
better world to live in.

All youth, women, men, and elderly people will

contribute as actors of sustainable development, ensuring
that no one is left behind in benefiting from development.

Vision 2050 is informed by the aspiration of Rwandans of

leaving to Rwandan children a better world to live in.
As such, growth and development will follow a sustainable path
in terms of use and management of natural resources while
building resilience to cope with climate change impacts.

Rwandans aspiration for high quality of life will be further

appreciated through the quality of the environment, both
natural and built.

• These aspirations will continue to be embedded in Rwanda’s

long term Green Growth and Climate Resilient Strategy
(GGCRS) whose impact is intended to bring about mindset
and developmental transformation in Rwandan society that is
necessary to achieve the desired carbon-neutral and climate
resilient economy.
Efficient use of land across sectors will be guided
by the National Land Use and Development Master
Plan (2020-2050).

PILLARS OF THE VISION 2050

1. Human Development
The overarching objective for this pillar is to reap
the economic benefits from the estimated
“demographic dividend”.
That is by 2050, the share of the working age
population is expected to grow from around 61% of
the population in 2017 (NISR) to 65.7% in 2050.
Specific priorities in this pillar include;
• Universal access to high quality health care
• Universal access to high quality education
• A transformed workforce for higher productivity
2. Competitiveness and Integration Rwanda’s
ambition to become a developed country hinges on
its ability to enhance competitiveness at macro and
micro levels.
Rwanda is targeting to;
• Belong to the top 10 countries in doing business in
2035 and maintain the status
• Rank among the top 20 economies in
competitiveness by 2035 and top 10 in 2050
Specific priorities under this pillar include;
• A diversified economy built upon future industries
• Competitive manufacturing anchored to a regional
logistics hub
• Modern and innovative services sectors driving
transformative growth
• Export-oriented knowledge services
• High-end sustainable tourism
• Universal access to financial services
• Strengthening export competitiveness and
trade connectivity
• Knowledge intensive economy through;