On-farm water

management Part 1
for Smallholder Irrigators

Irrigation Principles and Management

CUIE101
L. Katiyo
School of Agricultural Sciences and Technology
Department of Irrigation and Water Engineering
On-farm water management integrates

- technical aspects,
- agricultural aspects,
- socio-economic aspects
- institutional aspects

- Depends on local condition

Start with working drawing – farm map
-Identify water
management problems on
farm
- Subdivide map into
water management blocks
Water management
problems
 Analyse each block for causes and
impacts of water management problems

 Flooding

 Waterlogging

 Problems in water supply

Brainstorming

 Brainstorm for possible solutions

Use engineering
principles/ structures and
locally available materials
to avail short term and
long term solutions
Draft an action plan
 Problem: Collapsing Canal banks

Caused by:
Fast flowing water eroding
canal banks

Results in:
1. Collapse of the embankments and serious canal deterioration
2. Reduced flow and frequent disruption of irrigation supply
3. Frequent maintenance
Solution: Bank protection and consolidation

1 Protecting the canal

embankment by lining for which
different materials can be
used: stones, bamboo, masonry
or concrete

2. Reducing water velocity by:

Construction of drop structures
(see later), simple structures
made from local materials
(bamboo or stones),
Solution: Bank protection and consolidation

Even plastic fertilizer bags filled with sand can be used to temporarily
protect and stabilize on difficult spots in the embankment.
Problem: Collapsing Canal banks

Caused by:
Unstable embankments due
to unsuitable soil (sands,
mud) or water saturated soil

Results in:
1. Collapse of the canal banks
2. Reduced flow and disruption of irrigation supply
3. Frequent maintenance
 Collapsing Canal banks

Caused by:
Leaking lining in elevated
embankment erodes the
foundations of the
embankments and lining

Results in:
1. Collapse of the canal banks and lining
2. Serious damage and disruption of water supply when canal bank collapses
Solution: Bank protection and consolidation

Unstable embankments can be improved by:

1 Stabilizing the embankment with different kinds of lining from stones, bamboo,
masonry or concrete.
 Problem: Collapsing Canal banks

Caused by:
Crabs and other animals that
dig holes in the embankment

Results in:
1. Collapse of the embankment
2. Water losses
Solution: Bank protection and consolidation

1. Eradication of animals

2. Lining the canal embankment - different materials can be used: stones,

bamboo, masonry or concrete
Problem: Collapsing Canal banks

Caused by:
Cattle climbing in and
out of the canal

Results in:
1. Frequent maintenance
2. Restriction of flow
3. Water losses
Solution: Bank protection and consolidation

Construction of special cattle crossings and cow baths preferably with stones or
cement lining where animals can bathe and least damage is done to canal embankments.
Problem: Steep Canal slopes

Results in:

1. Erosion of canal bottom and progressively digging in of canal.

2. Erosion of side slopes and collapse of the embankment. A most common and
difficult to prevent problem.
 Solution: Drop Structures

1. Construction of Drop structures 2. Lining of canal sections with high flow

for which different materials and velocities. This will prevent the erosive
solutions can be applied effect of fast flowing water.
 Problem: Steep Canal slopes

Farmers are able to construct (with local means), large drop structures, overcoming
even big changes in height. However, this Results in:

1. Continuous maintenance
2. Frequent failures and disruption of water supply
Consequences: Progressive erosion

May result in:

1. Substantial erosion and landslides
2. Loss of land
3. Serious problems to irrigate certain areas
 Solution: Drop Structures

Drop structures can be constructed by farmers using local materials which often
provide an easy and cheap solution such as:

1. Bamboo structures
2. Stones
3. Pipe drops
 Solution: Drop Structures

To overcome larger canal heights, proper structures in masonry or concrete

need to be constructed. For this, a professional design is required.
 Problem: Overtopping Canal banks

Caused by:
Too small canal

Results in:
1. Overtopping of the embankment. May have serious consequences when
collapse of the bund will erode away the lower slope
2. Low supply and water losses
3. Frequent maintenance
 Problem: Overtopping Canal banks

Caused by:
Too low canal bunds

Results in:
1. Water losses
2. Collapse of the embankment and destruction of neighboring fields or
canals
 Solution 1: Canal realignment

Requires:

1. Realignment of the canal

2. Heightening and strengthening of the embankments
 Solution 2: Canal realignment

On difficult stretches a more permanent

solution can be reached by:

- Concrete lining

- Bamboo lining
Problem: Overtopping Canal banks
Caused by:
Obstructions in the canal
Rocks, vegetation or other materials
can block the water flow.

Results in:
1. Overtopping of the embankment
2. Water losses
3. Reduced water flow
4. Unequal water distribution

Solution:
1. Improvements of field inlets
2. Improved regulations on canal
operation and
maintenance
Problem: Canal Obstructions

Caused by:
Canal vegetation

Results in:
1. Reduced water flow through the canal
2. Overtopping of canal bunds upstream
3. Unequal water distribution
Solution: Canal Maintenance

Requires:
1. Cleaning by farmers
2. More frequent maintenance to prevent
future problems
 Problem: Canal Obstructions

Caused by:
Canal obstructions upstream of water diversion. In order to increase water
inflow to their fields, farmers frequently raise the
water level in the canal by stones or plant materials (rice straw, banana trunks,
etc.)
Results in:
1. Reduced water flow through the canal
2. Overtopping of canal bund upstream
3. Unequal water distribution for farmers downstream
 Solution: Canal Maintenance

Preparation of an Action Plan

by WUA to implement
maintenance and
repair of the on-farm irrigation
system

Canal obstruction caused by:

Diversion to field inlets
1. Installation of proper field inlets
2. Realignment of canal to raise water level
3. Better operation guidelines for the diversion of water
Problem: Water losses and leakage

Caused by:
Holes in embankment, often due to
improper compactions or organic material
buried in the bunds

Results in:
1. Water losses
2. Collapse of the embankment
3. Frequent maintenance

Caused by:
Crabs and other digging animals

Results in:
1. Water losses
2. Undermining of the embankment
 Problem: Water losses and leakage

Caused by:
Leaking lining

Results in:
1. Undermining of the embankment
2. Collapse of lining and embankment
3. Serious water losses
4. Disruption of water supply
 Solution: Canal Sealing

Requires:
1. Reconstruction and realignment of the canal Embankment

2. Canal lining on difficult stretches from bamboo or from concrete

 On-farm water
management Part 2
for Smallholder Irrigators

Irrigation Principles and Management

CUIE101
L. Katiyo
School of Agricultural Sciences and Technology
Department of Irrigation and Water Engineering
Problem: Illegal offtakes

Caused by farmers:
Digging holes in the embankment to
water their adjoining fields

Results in:
1. Uncontrolled water offtake and water
losses
2. Unequal water distribution
3. Collapse of the embankment by
progressive erosion of the embankment
4. Frequent maintenance
 Problem: Illegal offtakes

Caused by farmers:
Breaking the lining to take water to their fields, as no offtake was included

Results in:
1. Uncontrolled and unequal offtake of water
2. Undermining of the foundation by water erosion and collapse of the structure
3. Frequent maintenance and rapid deterioration of the irrigation structure
 Solution: Simple intake structures

Simple field intakes which

- better control and reduce water intake
- prevent destruction of embankment and lining

Examples of such are:

Small intake gate with quartenary canal: the width of the gate should be
proportionally to the area served.
 Solution: Simple intake structures

Simple Bamboo or Plastic Pipe, directly to the

field or to the quartenary canal are highly effective
and simple to reduce excessive offtakes.

Intake steps. Trunks of the palm or banana tree

placed horizontally at the entrance of field or
channel can allow effective control of water
intake, where width and depth are directly a
measure for water intake.
Problem: Uncontrolled and inadequate offtakes

Caused by:
Temporarily constructions from simple and easily
available materials (stones, straw, banana trunks,
brush wood). Water is diverted in various ways to
quartenary canals and fields.
Most common in all on-farm irrigation systems, as
easily and flexible to apply and serving the
immediate purpose of its constructor.

Result in:
1. Uncontrolled and mostly excessive water offtake
in particularly the head of the canal
2. Unequal water distribution
3. Collapse of the embankment by progressive
erosion of the embankment
4. Frequent maintenance
 Solution: Intake Structures
Construction Intake Gates, which can
regulate the flow to the quartenaries.
Size of the intake should be in proportion
with the area served.
Intake gate is normally combined with a
cross-check regulator that allows increasing
the water level in order to increase and
regulate the inflow.

Pipe intakes, simple and cheap. They

provide an easy way to regulate the flow of
water.
 Solution: Intake Structures

Tertiary boxes, a simple square structure with four sides, constructed mostly out
of bricks. Each side will have a gated opening, allowing control of water flow to the
field or quartenary.
Problem: Uncontrolled and inadequate distribution

Caused by:
Structures from local materials (stones, straw, banana trunks, brush wood).
Water is divided in various ways to sub-tertiaries and quartenaries.

Results in:
1. Uncontrolled water diversion 2. Frequent breakdown and disruption of
water supply
3. Frequent and intensive maintenance required
Problem: Uncontrolled and inadequate distribution

Common in many on-farm irrigation systems. Because of the frequent breakdown

and intensive maintenance required, this are the first obvious on-farm works to be
improved.
 Solution: Tertiary boxes

Tertiary Distribution Boxes. Different types from masonry or bricks are

constructed.
This requires:
As proper dimensions and alignment in the canal section is required, a proper
technical design is in most cases required.
 Solution: Tertiary boxes

Tertiary Distribution Boxes. Different types from masonry or bricks are

constructed.
 Problem: Inadequate diversions
Village irrigation schemes are in most cases
dependent on the diversion of irrigation water
from rivers and streams. The supply of irrigation
water is often inadequate

Caused by:
Temporarily constructions from simple and
easily available materials (stones, straw, banana
trunks, brush wood).
 Problem: Inadequate diversions

Resulting in:
1. Frequent breakdown by floods
2. Inadequate and frequent disruption of
irrigation supply
3. Frequent and intensive maintenance

Caused by:
Damaged and Dysfunctional Structures
Although most village irrigation schemes
will have a simple river diversion structure,
frequent breakdown and intensive
maintenance is required, often beyond the
capacity of the farmers.
 Solution: Diversion weirs

Construction of simple Diversion Structures from Gabion as a temporarily

solution to improve effectiveness of local diversion weirs.
Frequent and intensive maintenance is still required, as the life span is in general
short and construction and design often inadequate.
 Solution: Diversion weirs

Construction of simple Diversion Structures from Masonry Structures.

Although simple structures, the life span of the structure depends in most cases on
the adequacies in the DESIGN of the structure, in particular: stilling basin, bank
protection and capacity of the dam at peak discharge.
 Solution: Diversion weirs

Repair of Diversion Structures

- Damage to the diversion weir requires regular repairs, which is often beyond the
financial resources and technical capacities of the farmers.
- Adequate analysis of the reasons of failure of the structure is required to
guarantee a better functioning in future.
.
 Problem: Damaged and Inadequate Structures

Caused by:
Inadequate design
.. location of structures not relevant
.. elevation of the structure in relation to canal
height inadequate
.. inadequate protection of embankment causes
erosion of the foundations and collapse of the
structure

Caused by:
Erosion
Insufficient protection of the embankments
will cause erosion of the foundations and
eventual collapse of the structure. Most
common problem.
Problem: Damaged and Inadequate Structures

Caused by:
Insufficient Maintenance
Collapse of most structures can be prevented by regular small maintenance.
Results in:
1. Disruption of water supply
2. Frequent repair and maintenance
3. High expenses for frequent repair and replacement of structures
 Solution: Maintenance of Structures

Preventive maintenance
Regular control and small repairs to the structures can importantly lengthen the life of
most structures. This Requires:
1. Good cooperation of farmers in a WUA
2. Good support from responsible government services to assist and advise in
maintenance procedures of public structures
 Solution: Maintenance of Structures

Repair
Even under good preventive maintenance, regular and incidental repairs remain
necessary and Requires:
1. Maintenance work by farmers
2. Strong WUA to ensure the contribution of all farmers
 Problem: Inadequate water distribution

Caused by:
Inadequate or non functional structures

Results in:
1. Abolishment and collapse of structures
2. Farmers become indifferent to adhere to better water management procedures
 Solution: Improved Operation

Rehabilitation of the on-farm irrigation system.

Through the WUA, mobilize and motivate the farmers to jointly undertake a
Water Management Action Plan to rehabilitate the system.
 Problem: Inadequate water distribution
Caused by:
Lack of guidelines and criteria for water distribution. Although guidelines
exist for water distribution, based on the established cropping pattern, their
application in the field is often lacking.

Results in:
1. Non adherence to agreed cropping pattern

2. Arbitrary and unequal water distribution

3. Uncertainty in water supply

4. Indifference of farmers
Solution: Improved Operation

Establishment (by WUA) of guidelines

for improved water distribution,
including
.. optimal cropping pattern
.. criteria for improved water supply to
middle and tail end
 Problem: Inadequate water distribution

Caused by:
Non functional Water Users Association (WUA). A lack of understanding
by farmers of the tasks of the WUA and the lack of an effective support to
promote the functioning of the WUA.

Results in:
1. Non-cooperation and indifference of farmers in the operation and
maintenance of the system

2. Excessive and arbitrarily offtake of water by the individual farmer

3. Shortage of water in middle and tail end and low cropping intensity
 Solution: Improved Operation

Strengthening WUA functioning by:

1. Farmers motivation through Water Management training
2. Establishment of rules and regulations
3. Promotion of WUA responsibilities
4. Insurance of sustainability
 Problem: Water Pollution
Caused by:
1. Disposal of village waste in or near irrigation canals
2. Disposal of agricultural chemicals (insecticides, fertilizers)

Results in:
1. Water pollution
2. Human health hazards
 Solution: Pollution control

1. Canal protection in residential areas, e.g lining

2. Adequate arrangements for waste disposal

In cooperation with village officials, mobilize and motivate farmers

and villagers to reduce pollution.
 Problem: Water borne diseases
Caused by:
1. Spread of insects (mosquitoes, etc.)
2. Poor sanitation of irrigation canals

Results in:
1. Health hazards
2. Epidemics
Solution: Control of water borne diseases

Prevention of water-born diseases by effective control measures:

1. Control on possible breeding places of suspect insect carriers

2. Improved sanitary provisions

Requires:
Close cooperation and consultation with local health services
 Problem: Environmental degradation
EROSION AND LANDSLIDES
Caused by:
1. Floods
2. Steep and unstable hill slopes

Results in:
1. Loss of agricultural lands
2. Yield losses
3. Life hazards
 Solution: Erosion Control

Prevention of erosion and landslide hazards by effective preventive measures:

Control on possible erosion sensitive areas

Requires:
1. Guidelines to prevent cultivation of dangerous slopes
2. Timely imposition of control measures
A lot of problems….

But a lot of solutions too!!!

Thank you