Quantitative Research Methods
Content to be delivered at Masters program of science in
pharmaceutical Analysis And Quality Assurance
University of Rwanda
Academic Year 2023
Instructor: Etienne NSEREKO, MSc, CCT, Ep, FCRE, PhD
Learning objectives
• Discuss the different types of quantitative research
design.
• Discuss criteria and strategies for sample size
determination
• Describe steps and characteristics of good sample
design
• Questionnaire and study tools development
• Data analysis and interpretation
• Discuss methods of primary and secondary data
collection
• Describe steps in processing of data and analysis
• Writing a research protocol
Defining health services research
• In general terms, health services research (HSR) seeks
knowledge that will lead to improvement in the delivery
of healthcare
• Research for pharmacists: focuses on scrutinizing how
and why people access pharmacy services, how much
care costs, and what happens to patients as a result of
this care
Defining health services research
• In pharmacy the focuses is on :
• Medicines policy and governance
• Quality assurance and safety
• Medicine access and rational use
• Quality, safety & standards (e.g. vaccines and biologicals)
Many definitions of HSR
• The use of the scientific method in
investigating problems of planning,
organization, and administration (including
management and evaluation) of health
services
- J Hogarth (1978)
• The evaluation of the adequacy,
effectiveness, and efficiency of medical care,
including assessments of the need for
medical care and of professional and public
attitudes
- FGR Fowkes et al.
Many definitions of HSR
• The investigation of the health needs of the
community and the effectiveness and
efficiency of the provision of services to
meet them
- Medical Research Council
(1993)
• The study of the scientific basis and
management of health services and their
effect on access, quality, and cost of
healthcare
- KL White (1993)
HSR can address…
• Provision of services • Effectiveness of care
• Use of services • Efficiency of care
• Organization of services • Ease of access to services
• Distribution of services • Equity of use of services
• Quality of services • Use of medical knowledge
• Planning of services • Health needs of the
community
• Impact of services on
health status, illness, and • Attitudes of the public and
disability health professionals
Research begins with a question
• Good question
• potential for a good project
• Poor, flawed question
• confused or incomplete project
• Impractical, useless question
• waste of time doing the project
• No question
• no answer!
Research question and
source
Where do research questions come from?
• Clinical experiences or observations
• Desire to improve patient care
• Desire to improve work conditions,
management challenges
• Evaluating policy changes
• Previous research
Problems with research questions
• Too broad question
• Too many questions
Focus on one primary research question
• answering this is the priority of the study
• this will drive all other decisions in the study
Honing in on a research
question
• Too broad…
• Why do women continue to die from cervical
cancer even though effective screening could
prevent this?
• Begin to dissect out some research
questions…
• What sociodemographic and clinical
characteristics are associated with not being
screened?
• What organizational factors are barriers to
screening?
Key elements of a research question
• Some research questions express curiosity
about a single phenomenon
• However, most research questions express
curiosity about the relationship between
two (or more) phenomena
• Research questions should indicate the
population of interest in general terms
Primary vs. secondary questions
• Stay focused!
• Identify one key research question
• (Secondary questions can also be included)
Questions, aims, and hypotheses
• Research question
• expresses curiosity in the form of a question
• includes the key phenomena and the study
population
• Study aim or objective
• written as a sentence of intent, summarizing
the key activity of a study
• Hypothesis
• written as a statement of prediction about the
specific relationship between the phenomena
Qualities of a “good” research question
F.I.N.E.R. criteria
• Feasible
• Interesting
• Novel
• Ethical
• Relevant
Feasible? (Answerable?)
• Adequate number of subjects?
• Necessary personnel, equipment?
• Proper technical expertise?
• Affordable in terms of time and money?
• Realistic, manageable in scope?
Interesting?
• To policymakers?
• To your hospital Board?
• To funding agencies?
• To other researchers?
• To you? Most important!
• Otherwise, it will be difficult to maintain the energy
and enthusiasm needed to complete the project
Novel?
• Does the research extend previous findings?
• new population
• new application
• additional concept or variable introduced
• Does the research provide new findings?
• Does the research confirm or refute previous
findings?
Ethical?
• Minimal risks?
• Risk/benefit ratio?
• Equitable selection?
• Informed consent?
• Confidentiality?
Relevant? (“So what?”)
• To clinical practice, improving patient care?
• To management, training, and planning
activities?
• To future research directions?
• To health policy?
• To scientific theory and knowledge?
Process of developing a researchable
question rigorously apply the “FINER”
criteria
• Have an idea
• State and refine the research question
• Discuss with colleagues, review the literature
• Assess the practicability
• Discard unworkable ideas
The success of HSR depends upon…
• The precision with which problems appropriate for
research are identified
• The rigor with which they are tackled
• The mechanisms in place to ensure practical use of the
results
HSR is challenging
• Dealing with people
• Research can be threatening
• Involving other disciplines
• Time pressure
HSR is challenging
Dealing with people
• People are central to the delivery of health
care: patients, families, physicians, nurses,
other providers, non-clinical staff,
administrators
• To be successful, the people who are likely
to be affected by the research need to be
identified and involved from the beginning
HSR is challenging
Dealing with people
• The intrusiveness of research can range
from minor inconvenience to downright
nuisance if daily routine is disrupted
• It is important to actively involve affected
staff from the beginning
• Being involved can generate a sense of
ownership of the research
HSR is challenging
Involving other disciplines
HSR is challenging
Time pressure
• Competing demands
• Urgency felt to improve patient care
• Administrators and policymakers may be
impatient
• Need to balance methodological rigor with
time constraints
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO
DO RESEARCH?
What research does
• Describes
• Searches for explanations
• Tests hypotheses
• Leads to generalizations
What research does not do
• Seek proof
• Give guarantees
What research seldom does
• goes smoothly
• Revolutionizes understanding
• Gives clear-cut findings
• Contains no surprises
Research is more likely to be
successful if you…
• Have a “FINER” research question
• Plan and prepare
• Anticipate problems
• Critically assess the methods
• Pre-test the methods, as appropriate
• Complete the study
• Act on the findings
• Disseminate the findings
