•G R O U P M E M B E R S

•P H A E J E R R Y
•K R I Z E L W E L L S
•S I A R A F E R N A N D E S
•J E M I M A M O S E L E Y
•H A N N A H K A L E E M

T H E
E N D O C R I N E
S Y S T E M
The Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is a control system of ductless glands that
secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various
bodily functions. The endocrine system works closely with the nervous
system to maintain homeostasis and regulate important bodily
processes. Hormones act as chemical messengers that bind to target
cells and trigger specific responses. Imbalances or malfunctions in the
endocrine system can lead to various hormonal disorders.
• The 8 major endocrine glands are located in various regions of the
body and work together to regulate critical physiological processes
through the secretion of hormones.

• Pituitary Gland (Master Gland):

• Secretes hormones that regulate growth, metabolism,
reproduction, water/salt balance, and stress response.
• Consists of anterior and posterior lobes that secrete different
hormones.
• It's located at the base of the brain.
The Endocrine System
• Thyroid Gland:
• Secretes hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
• Plays a key role in regulating body temperature, heart rate, and muscle control.
• Located in the front of the neck, below the larynx.
• Parathyroid Glands:
• Secrete parathyroid hormone to regulate calcium and phosphate levels in the blood.
• Helps maintain proper bone density and muscle function.
• Located at the back of the thyroid gland.
• Adrenal Glands:
• Secrete hormones that regulate stress response, metabolism, and blood pressure.
• Produce cortisol, adrenaline, and aldosterone.
• Located on the top of the kidneys.
The Endocrine System
• Pancreas:
• Secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels.
• Helps maintain glucose homeostasis in the body.
• Located behind the stomach.
• Gonads (Ovaries and Testes):
• Ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone to regulate female sexual development and reproduction.
• Testes secrete testosterone to regulate male sexual development and reproduction.
• Thymus Gland:
• Plays a role in the development and maturation of T cells in the immune system.
• Helps regulate the immune response.
• Located in the upper chest, just behind the breastbone.
The Endocrine System
• Pineal Gland:
• Secretes melatonin, which regulates the sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms.
• May also play a role in sexual development.
• Located near the center of the brain.

• The hypothalamus isn't an endocrine gland but it is important to the endocrine system. It produces
hormones like oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and releasing hormones. These hormones are
then transported to the pituitary gland to stimulate the release of other hormones. This allows the
hypothalamus to indirectly regulate many bodily functions. The hypothalamus helps maintain
homeostasis by regulating body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep cycles, and other physiological
processes. It also triggers the release of hormones that prepare the body to respond to stress. It's
located at the base of the brain just above the pituitary gland.
Damage on the Nervous System
• Damage to sensory nerves can lead to loss or impairment of senses like touch, pain, temperature, vision,
hearing, etc. This can result in numbness, tingling, or loss of sensation in affected areas. Damage to
motor nerves can cause weakness, paralysis, or loss of muscle control and coordination. This can affect
voluntary movements, reflexes, and the ability to perform physical tasks. Damage to the autonomic
nervous system can disrupt involuntary bodily functions like heart rate, blood pressure, digestion,
breathing, and temperature regulation. This can lead to issues like orthostatic hypotension,
incontinence, and impaired sweating. Damage to the brain or spinal cord can impact cognitive abilities,
memory, mood, and behavior. This can result in problems with learning, attention, decision-making,
and emotional regulation. Nerve damage can cause chronic pain, tingling, or burning sensations
(neuropathic pain). This is often seen in conditions like diabetic neuropathy, shingles, and spinal cord
injuries. Damage to the spinal cord or peripheral nerves can disrupt normal reflexes and coordination.
This can lead to problems with balance, gait, and involuntary movements.
Damage to the Nervous System
• Causes of nervous system damage can include:
• Traumatic injuries (e.g. spinal cord injuries, head trauma)
• Neurodegenerative diseases (e.g. Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, ALS)
• Autoimmune disorders (e.g. multiple sclerosis)
• Metabolic disorders (e.g. diabetic neuropathy)
• Infections (e.g. Guillain-Barré syndrome)
• Toxin exposure
Mental Illness
• Mental illnesses refer to a wide range of disorders that affect a person's thoughts,
emotions, behavior, and overall mental well-being.
• Mental illnesses, such as anxiety and depression, can disrupt the hypothalamic-
pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is responsible for the body's stress response.
Chronic stress can lead to dysregulation of cortisol and other stress hormones secreted
by the adrenal glands. Mental illnesses can cause imbalances in thyroid hormones (e.g.
hypothyroidism in depression), sex hormones (e.g. altered estrogen and testosterone
levels), growth hormone, and prolactin.

• Mental illnesses are often associated with structural and functional changes in the
brain. For example, depression has been linked to decreased volume in certain brain
regions, such as the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. These changes can impact
cognition, emotion regulation, and other neurological processes.
Mental Health
• Mental illnesses are frequently characterized by imbalances in
neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. These
chemical messengers play crucial roles in mood, cognition, and behavior, and
their dysregulation can contribute to the development of mental health
conditions. Mental illnesses can affect the functioning of the autonomic nervous system,
which controls involuntary bodily functions like heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion. This
can result in symptoms like anxiety, palpitations, and gastrointestinal issues.
Exocrine vs Endocrine Gland
• Exocrine Glands
• Function: Release their secretions (such as enzymes, sweat, saliva, and mucus) into ducts that
transport these substances to specific locations either outside the body or into internal
cavities (e.g., the digestive tract).
• Examples: Sweat glands, salivary glands, sebaceous (oil) glands, and the pancreas (which
releases digestive enzymes into the small intestine).
• Ducts: They have ducts that carry their secretions to target areas.
• Endocrine Glands
• Function: Release hormones directly into the bloodstream, which then travel throughout the
body to regulate various physiological processes, including growth, metabolism, and mood.
• Examples: Thyroid gland, pituitary gland, adrenal glands, and the pancreas (also has an
endocrine role, releasing insulin into the blood).
• Ducts: They do not have ducts; they are "ductless" glands.
Comparison of Hormonal and
Nervous methods of coordination
• Hormonal Coordination (Endocrine System):

• Uses chemical messengers called hormones

• Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands directly into the bloodstream
• Hormones travel throughout the body and target specific cells/tissues with receptors
• Effects are usually slower, lasting from minutes to days
• Hormones can have widespread, long-term effects on the body
• Examples: insulin, testosterone, estrogen, thyroid hormones
Comparison of Hormonal and
Nervous methods of coordination
• Nervous Coordination (Nervous System):

• Uses electrical signals transmitted through nerves

• Nerves transmit signals rapidly, in a matter of milliseconds
• Effects are usually faster, immediate
• Nerves target specific cells/tissues through synaptic connections
• Nervous coordination is more localized and short-term
• Examples: muscle contraction, reflex responses, sensory perception