PROCESSES

IN Plants: gas
exchanged and
transport/
circulation BY: GROUP 3
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to
1. State some basic principles in gas exchange;
2. Describe the structures for gas exchange in plants and
animals;
3. Describe the organs in the human respiratory system and
their roles;
4. Discuss the coordination of gas exchange and circulation;
5. Explain the functions of structures in animal circulation;
6. Trace the path of blood in the systemic and the pulmonary
circulation; and
7. Describe the transport of substances in xylem and phloem;
lesson 1
Gas
exchange
 GAS EXCHANGE
Gas Exchange in Plants, Animals, and
Humans Gas exchange is the biological
process by which oxygen (O₂) is taken in
and carbon dioxide (CO₂) is released. This
is essential for respiration in animals and
humans, and for photosynthesis and
respiration in plants. Gas exchange occurs
through different structures and follows
Carbon dioxide may appear to be a waste
product of respiration in plant cells, but
carbon dioxide may be considered to be a by-
product because it is used in photosynthesis.
Plant cells must have carbon dioxide
available in them while the oxygen gas must
be eliminated. Gas exchange is an important
process in the metabolism of energy, and gas
exchange is an essential prerequisite for life.
Diffusion through a moist membrane is the
fundamental process of gas exchange.
Diffusion is the movement of molecules in
the direction following the concentration
gradient, from a region of greater
concentration to a region of lower
concentration. The molecules travel through
cell membranes in living systems, which are
constantly moistened by fluid.
 PLANTS
While plants are complex organisms,
they exchange their gases with the
atmosphere. Water moves through
the tissues of aquatic plants and
provides the means for the exchange
of carbon. Air enters the tissues of
terrestrial plants, and the gases
diffuse through the moisture that
bathes the inner cells.
 PLANTS
An abundant supply of carbon dioxide must be
available in the leaves of the plant, and oxygen
from photosynthesis must be released. Gases do
not pass through the leaf cuticle; they pass
through pores called stomata in the epidermis. On
the lower surface of the leaf, stomata are
numerous and usually open during the day when
the rate of photosynthesis is highest. The opening
and closure of stomata are due to physiological
changes in the surrounding guard cells.
plants
ANIMALS
Gas exchange follows the same general trend in
animals as in plants. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
diffuses across moist membranes. The exchange
happens directly with the environment in simple
animals. The exchange between the
environment and the blood happens with
complex organisms, such as mammals. The
blood transports oxygen to deeply embedded
cells and transports carbon dioxide out of the
body.
ANIMALS
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are
transferred by earthworms directly
through their skin. Oxygen diffuses into
tiny blood vessels on the surface of the
skin where it mixes with hemoglobin, a
red pigment. Hemoglobin loosely binds to
oxygen and brings it across the
bloodstream of the animal. Hemoglobin
transports carbon dioxide back to the
Terrestrial arthropods have a set of
openings on the surface of the body
called spiracles. Spiracles open into
tiny air tubes called tracheae, which
grow into fine branches that reach
into all areas of the body of the
arthropod.
ANIMALS
Fishes use external extensions of the
surface of their body, called gas
exchange gills. Gills are tissue flaps
which are richly supplied by blood
vessels. This attracts water into its
mouth and through the gills as fish
swims. Oxygen spreads through the gill's
blood vessels from the water, while
carbon dioxide exits the blood vessels
There are well-developed respiratory systems
with lungs for terrestrial vertebrates such as
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. In
their lungs, frogs swallow air, where oxygen
diffuses the blood to bind with hemoglobin in
the red blood cells. By means of their skin,
amphibians can exchange gases as well. To
provide increased surface space for gas
exchange,reptiles have folded lungs. Rib
muscles aid the expansion of the lungs and
ANIMALS
Birds have in their lungs large air spaces
called air sacs. The rib cage spreads apart
when a bird inhales, and a partial vacuum
is created in the lungs. Air flows into the
lungs and then into the air sacs, where
much of the exchange of gas takes place.
This method is the adaptation of birds to
the rigors of flight and their enormous
metabolic requirements.
Mammalian lungs are classified into millions of
microscopic air sacs called alveoli (the singular is
alveolus). A rich network of blood vessels for
transporting gases surrounds each alveolus.
Furthermore, mammals have a dome-shaped
diaphragm that separates the thorax from the
abdomen, providing a separate the chest cavity
for breathing and blood circulating. The
diaphragm contracts and flattens to create a
partial vacuum in the lungs during inhalation.
With air, the lungs fill, and gas exchange follows.
ANIMALS
The
Human
Respiratory
System
Gas exchange between the external
atmosphere and the circulatory system
of an organism is the primary feature of
the respiratory system. This exchange
combines the oxygenation of blood with
the removal of carbon dioxide and other
metabolic waste from circulation in
humans and other mammals.
Gas exchange occurs at the molecular
level in the alveoli-tiny sacs that are
the essential functional part of the
lungs. The alveolar epithelial tissue is
extremely thin and permeable,
facilitating the exchange of gas
between the air inside the lungs and
the blood stream capillaries. Air moves
due to variations in pressure, where air
flows from high-pressure areas to low-
The key respiratory system organs work primarily to
provide oxygen for cellular respiration to body
tissues, extract carbon dioxide from the waste
product, and help preserve acid-base balance.
Sections of the respiratory system are also used for
non-vital purposes, such as odor detection, voice
generation, and stress, such as during childbirth or
coughing
In order to help you breathe, the respiratory system
has several different parts that function together.
Your airways deliver your lungs with air. Your airways
are a complex structure, like your:
Mouth and nose: Openings that pull air from
outside your body into your respiratory system.

Sinuses: Hollow areas between the bones in your

head that help regulate the temperature and
humidity of the air you inhale.

Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air from your

mouth and nose to the trachea (windpipe).

Trachea: Passage connecting your throat and lungs.

Mouth Pharynx
Sinuses
and nose (throat)

Trachea
Bronchial tubes: Tubes at the bottom of
your windpipe that connect into each
lung

Lungs: Two organs that remove oxygen

from the air and pass it into your blood.
Bronchial tubes
Lungs
From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers
oxygen to all your organs and other tissues.

Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale

into and out of your lungs. Some of the bones
and muscles in the respiratory system include
your:

Diaphragm: Muscle that helps your lungs pull in

air and push it out.

Ribs: Bones that surround and protect your

diaphragm ribs
When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other
waste out of the body.
Other components that work with the lungs and blood vessels
include:

Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide takes place.

Bronchioles: Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the

alveoli.

Capillaries: Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and
carbon dioxide.

Lung lobes: Sections of the lungs three lobes in the right lung and
two in the left lung.
Alveoli Bronchioles Capillaries
Lung lobes pleura
Some of the other components of your respiratory
system include:

Cilia: Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter

dust and other irritants out of your airways.

Epiglottis: Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that

closes when you swallow to keep food and liquids out of
your airway.

Larynx (voice box): Hollow organ that allows you to talk

and ma
ke sounds when air moves in and out.
 Larynx
cilia Epiglottis
(voice box)
Lesson 2
transport/circ
ulation
Multicellular organisms need to supply every cell
with oxygen, water and nutrients and to achieve this
they need a transport mechanism otherwise
diffusion will be too long. The development of a
transport system is thus directly related to an
organism’s surface area:volume ratio. Organisms
which have a very large surface area:volume ratio
e.g. protozoans, may depend upon diffusion, but as
an organism grows bigger, the surface area to
volume ratio reduces and this makes a specialised
transport mechanism necessary.
Transport in Plants Plants need a
transport system to supply raw
materials for photosynthesis to
the leaves and to deliver the
sugar made to other areas of the
plant for use or storage.
 The Xylem Transport
System
Water and minerals are carried up through the
stem in xylem vessels. Xylem is a tissue composed
of dead, hollowed-out cells that form a web of
pipes. The walls of xylem cells are lignified
(strengthened with a material called lignin)
(strengthened with a substance called lignin). This
allows the xylem to tolerate pressure changes as
water flows through the plant. Transport in the
xylem is a physical process. It does not require
Transpiration results in a phenomenal
amount of negative pressure within the
xylem vessels and tracheids, which are
structurally reinforced with lignin to
cope with large changes in pressure.
The taller the tree, the greater the
tension forces (and thus negative
pressure) needed to pull water up from
roots to shoots.
 The Phloem Transport
System
Sugar formed by photosynthesis in the leaves is
transferred up and down the plant to the meristems
and other tissues in living phloem cells. The
transported sugar is needed in the following
processes: growing parts of the plant for immediate
use; storage organs such as bulbs and tubers;
developing seeds; and respiration.

Transport in the phloem is both up and down the

stem. Transport of substances in the phloem is
 The Phloem Transport
System
Phloem consists of living cells. The cells that make up
the phloem are adapted to their function:

Sieve tubes - specialized for transport and contain no

nuclei. Each sieve tube has a perforated end so the
cytoplasm binds one cell to the next.

Companion cells- supply the energy for the sieve

cells. The end walls of the sieve cells have pores from
which sugar is transferred from cell to cell.
The xylem and phloem are dispersed
differently in roots and stems. In the root,
the xylem forms a central axis, forming a
strong support. The phloem is in the
middle, above the xylem. In the stem, the
transport tissues of the xylem and phloem
are organized into vascular bundles.
Transporting Water Each organism is unable to prepare food on its own. For their
nutrition, such species rely on others. Heterotrophs are species which cannot
produce food on their own and rely on other sources/organisms.

Plants require transport mechanisms to carry water, dissolved food and other
substances around their structures in order to remain alive. Plants require water
for photosynthesis and for the transport of minerals.

Water enters root hair cells: tiny hairs covering the ends of the smallest roots.
They provide a large surface area for the absorption of water by the process of
osmosis. Water then moves from cell to cell through the root cortex by osmosis
down a concentration gradient. This means that each cell has a lower water
content than the one before it. In the center of the root the water enters the
xylem vessels - vein-like tissues that transport water and minerals up a plant.

Water molecules move up the xylem vessels to the leaves where they exit and
move from cell to cell. Water moves from the xylem vessels into the mesophyll
cells where it can be used for photosynthesis.
The xylem and phloem are dispersed
differently in roots and stems. In the root,
the xylem forms a central axis, forming a
strong support. The phloem is in the
middle, above the xylem. In the stem, the
transport tissues of the xylem and phloem
are organized into vascular bundles.
 Xylem to Leaf to Air
Some of the water evaporates into the
surrounding air spaces inside the leaf and then
diffuses out through the stomata into the
surrounding air. The opening and closing of the
stomata is controlled by guard cells in the
epidermis. The loss of water from the leaves of
a plant is called transpiration, and the
resulting flow of water through the plant is
called the transpiration stream.
 Transport System in
Animals
Transport systems are crucial to survival.
Unicellular organisms rely on simple diffusion
for transport of nutrients and removal of
waste. Multicellular organisms have developed
more complex circulatory systems.
 Parts of the Circulatory
System
The average adult has 4.7 to 5.6 liters of blood composed of
plasma (fluid part of blood), red blood cells or erythrocytes
(transports oxygen), white blood cells (defense of the body)
and platelets (blood clotting). The heart is a four-chamber
muscular organ. Located just behind and just to the left of the
breastbone, it pumps blood through a network of arteries and
veins called the cardiovascular system. The network of arteries
(carries oxygenated blood), and veins (carries deoxygenated
blood) or collectively called blood vessels brings oxygenated
blood from the heart, provides oxygen and nutrients to the
 Open Circulatory
System
an open circulatory system, the blood vessels carry all fluids to
the cavity. When the animal moves, the blood inside the cavity
moves freely in both directions throughout the body. Blood
bathes the body immediately, delivering oxygen and
eliminating waste from the bloodstream.

Blood moves at a very slow pace due to the lack of smooth

muscles, which, as you have learned earlier, are responsible
for the contraction of the blood vessels. The majority of
invertebrates (crabs, flies, snails etc.) have an open circulatory
 Closed Circulatory
System
Closed circulatory systems are distinct from open circulatory
systems because blood never leaves the blood vessels.
Instead, it is continually moved from one blood vessel to
another without entering the cavity.

Blood is transported in one direction, supplying oxygen and

nutrients to cells and removing waste materials.

The blood circulatory system (cardiovascular system) provides

nutrients and oxygen to all cells of the body. It consists of the
heart and the blood vessels that run through the whole body.
 Closed Circulatory
System
The system of blood vessels resembles a tree: the trunk – the
primary artery (aorta) – branches through large arteries,
leading to smaller and smaller vessels. The smallest arteries
wind up in a network of tiny vessels known as the capillary
network.

The human circulatory system involves the pulmonary and

systemic circulatory systems. The pulmonary circulatory
system consists of blood vessels that transport deoxygenated
blood from the heart to the lungs and return oxygenated blood
from the lungs to the heart.
 Pulmonary circulation
system
In the pulmonary circulation system, deoxygenated blood exits
the heart from the right ventricle and is transferred through
the pulmonary artery to the lungs. The pulmonary artery is the
only artery to carry deoxygenated blood. It carries blood to the
capillaries where carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the
alveoli (lung cells) and then to the lungs where it is exhaled.
Simultaneously, oxygen diffuses through the alveoli, and then
to the blood and returns to the left atrium of the heart through
the pulmonary vein.
 Systemic circulation
Systemic circulation refers to the portion of the circulation system that
exits the heart, takes oxygenated blood to the cells of the body, and
returns deoxygenated blood to the heart. Blood exits from the left
ventricle to the aorta, the body's largest artery. The aorta connects to
smaller arteries that supply all of the body's organs. These arteries
ultimately branch to the capillaries. In the capillaries, oxygen diffuses
from the blood to the cells, and the waste and carbon dioxide diffuses
from the cells and into the blood. Deoxygenated blood in the capillaries
then travels to the veins that converge into the veins, where the blood is
transferred back to the heart. These veins converge into two main veins,
namely the upper vena cava and the lower vena cava (figure: double
circulation). Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the upper
vena cava. Major arteries deliver blood to the brain, small intestine,
Thank
you
By : Group 3