Unit 3 INSECT INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS

1.The Digestive System

 The digestive system of insects has special regions for grinding
and storing food, the production of enzymes, and the
absorption of nutrients. It extends from the mouth to the anus
and has the following parts;
 Foregut (stomodaeum) - the anterior section
 Midgut (mesenteron) - the central section
 Hindgut (proctodaeum) - the posterior section
 Valves separate the gut parts, the cardiac valve b/n the foregut
and the midgut and the pyloric valve b/n the midgut and the
hindgut.
 The fore- and hind-guts develop from the invaginations of the
ectoderm during embryonic development and thus are lined by
cuticle called intima, but the midgut arises from, the endoderm
and has no cuticle.
Fig. Showing D. System
 Digestion
 Insects possess most of the major enzymes found in other animals.
 These enzymes are adapted to the diet on which they feed; proteases,
carbohydrases & lipases each braking down a basic food group.
 Those that feed on a variety food groups have enzymes such as amylase,
maltase, lipase, invertase, exopeptidases and endopeptidases.
 Blood-feeding species have proteolytic enzymes; in wood-boring insects
cellulase is found capable of braking wood tissue or many e.g. termites,
harbour symbiotic microorganisms in their gut which produce cellulase.
 Some food begins digestion in the mouth contacting with saliva this may
occur externally before food is ingested and when saliva is injected into
host tissues or exuded over the food.
 In insects with a well-developed proventriculus, food is ground, thereby
increasing surface area for action of digestive enzymes.
 When food reaches the midgut, it contacts with the major digestive
enzymes where much enzyme activity occurs within and the area of gastric
caeca.
 After food is digested, nutrients pass through the peritrophic membrane
 3.2 The Circulatory System
 Insects have an open system of circulation, i.e the blood, for most of its course
simply flows through the body cavity (or hemocoel), irrigating the various
tissues and organs. And the fluid that circulates is called the blood or
hemolymph.
Components of the circulatory system:
 The diaphragms and sinuses : separated by constrictions, each chamber has a
pair of lateral openings called ostia through which blood enters the chamber.
 The heart is a posterior portion of the vessel confined to the body cavity or
hemocoel, divided into three sinuses by means of diaphragms: The Dorsal
diaphragm; w/c extends across the abdominal cavity above the alimentary
canal. The blood space thus formed is known as dorsal or pericardial sinus. It
encloses the heart.
 The ventral diaphragm. This stretches across the abdominal cavity just above
the ventral nerve cord. The hemocoel formed is known as ventral or
perineural sinus.
 Visceral or perivisceral sinus, b/n the dorsal and ventral sinuses it is a large
cavity w/c contains the main internal organs.
Figure 5 .2 The insect body cavity
Figure 3.2 The insect body cavity
 Divisions of the dorsal vessel
i. The Heart ; is the posterior portion of the vessel in the abdomen but
may extend up to the thorax. It is pulsating portion it is swollen in each
segment to form chambers.
• The blood enters the heart through ostia, a pair of lateral openings
which is situated at each constriction and through which blood enters
the chamber.
ii. The aorta; is an anterior prolongation of the heart, function as the
principal artery of the body.
Its junction with the heart is frequently marked by the presence of aortic
valves and extends forward through the thorax & terminate in the
head near the brain.
Accessory pulsatory organs present at the bases of appendages cause the
blood to flow into the antennae, legs and wings.
• The haemolymph is a liquid plasma or serum and contains blood cells
or haemocytes. The blood makes up 15-75% of the volume of the
insect and the plasma contains about 85% water.
Divisions of Dorsal vessel
Figure 3.3 Lateral view of a hypothetical insect indicating directional blood flow; II. (A) Heart in dorsal view, (B) contraction of heart and alary muscles, (C) course of blood circulation in T.S of a thoracic segment, (D) course of blood circulation in L.S of body
 Functions of haemolymph
The main function of blood in insects is to
transport nutrients, wastes and hormones and
immune system of insects ,healing wounds.
Stores and converts substances (e.g trehalose
stored converted to glucose )
Pressure source (hydraulitic function ) to
expand body parts during moulting and growth.
Detoxification of harmful (poisonous)
substances which has intered the insect body
(e.g. detoxification of DDT to non toxic DDE).
 3.3 The Excretory System
 The Excretory System: is important in elimination of wastes ,maintenance and
regulation of salts and water balance in the body fluids.
 The Malpighian tubules: are the most important organs of the excretory system
along with the rectum.
 Malpigihan tubules: are long, slender, blind-ended, which are convoluted. Their
number varies from 2 in some scale insects (Homoptera) to 200 or more in honey bee.
 The tubules are free at their distal ends but in some insects they are attached to the
rectum, forming cryptonephridial system.
 The cryptonephridial system helps in the conservation of water and useful ions by
absorbing them from the faecal matter.
 Excretion: occurs when blood flows over the Malpigihan tubules and substances
diffuse or are actively transported into the tubules.
 Most of the nitrogen taken up by the tubules as uric acid salts, and other s are
amino acids, various ions, and water.
 A potassium-ion gradient in the tubule causes the urine to flow.
 The Malpigihan tubules excrete uric acid which is usually accompanied by water.
 The uric acid collected in the body cells diffuse into the blood which finally
circulates around the Malpigihan tubules & excreted.
 Cont…
 In the blood, uric acid combines with Na and K carbonates to
form sodium and potassium urates, w/c are soluble in water
and easily absorbed by the distal part of the Malpigihan
tubules.
 The water and bicarbonates are reabsorbed and free uric
acid is precipitated. From here the uric acid solution loosely
termed as "urine" is passed into the proctodaem and is finally
excreted through the anus.
 The urate salts are secreted into the lumen of the Malpigihan
tubules. Within the proximal part of tubule in alkaline pH, by
the action of carbonic anhydrase, the urate salts are broken
down to regenerate water, bicarbonates and uric acid.
• Cuticular respiration ; a very thin cuticle ,which is permeable to
O2&CO2 to diffuse through
 3.4 The Respiratory(breathing) System

 Oxygen is carried directly to the tissues and cells by tubes known

as tracheae, and C02 is eliminated in the same way.
 Part of the C02 is carried by the blood and escapes through the
body. In insects respiration takes place through a system of
internal tubes known as tracheae, the finer branches (tracheoles)
 The tracheae open along the side of the body by apertures,
termed spiracles. The tracheal system originates as tubular
invaginations of the integument in the embryo.
 The external openings of these invaginations become the
spiracles.
 Being ectodermal in origin, each tracheal tube, except the
tracheoles, is lined with cuticle internally, that is periodically shed
during postembryonic growth.
 The cuticular lining called taenidia is spirally arranged in the
tracheae and it prevents the collapse of the tracheae if the
 General plan of the tracheation
From each spiracle on either side is given off , the spiracular trachea, which
joins the main tracheal trunk running along the whole length of the body.
 The two main tracheal trunks are the lateral longitudinal trunks and they form the largest
tracheae in insects.
 Spiracular trachea or the longitudinal trunk of each side gives off three branches:
1.a dorsal trachea entering the dorsal musculature of the body wall and to
the dorsal blood vessel.
2.a ventral trachea supplying the ventral musculature and the ventral nerve
cord and sending a branch in the leg bearing segment
3.a median visceral trachea having its principal ramifications on the walls of
the alimentary canal with branches to the fat body and in appropriate
segments to the reproductive organs.
 In fast-flying insects such as the house fly tracheal trunks have
enlargements called air sacs, w/c serve as bellows to increase ventilation.
 In many aquatic and parasitic species, the tracheal system is reduced ,
the spiracles being shut or closed.
 Except Diplura, the largest number of functional spiracles is ten pairs: 2
Fig. Cross section through the abdomen illustrating some of the tracheation
 3.5 The Nervous System
 transmits electrochemical impulses, and functions as a connecting link
b/n the sense organs and the effectors organs, acting as a coordinating
center.
 Nerve cells; the nervous system is composed of nerve cells or neurons
which are ecto-dermal in origin.
 The nerve cell consists of a cell body containing the nucleus and long
cytoplasmic projections , axons w/c extend to make contact with
other neurons.
Structurally the nerve cells are of three types:
 Monopolar - commonly the nerve cells of insects are monoplar having
only one axon.
 Dipolar - the peripheral sense cells are bipolar with a short distal
dendrite receiving stimuli from the environment and a proximal axon
extending to the central ganglia.
 Multipolar - The hypocerebral ganglion and frontal ganglion have
some cells with more than two axons and represent the multipolar
 In functional bases also there are 3 types

Sensory (afferent) neuron –perceive stimuli and

conducting them to central nervous system. Their
dendrite make contact with sensilla of the cuticle
while their axonic end extends to C.N.S.
Motor(efferent) neurons; conduct impulses from
C.N.S. to muscles or effector organs.
Association neurons; link sensory neurons with
motor neurons within C.N.S. through synapses.
Synapse :is a gap between axonic end of one
neuron with dendrite end of the following
neurons
Fig. Different types of neurons in the insect nervous
system
 Divisions of the Nervous System
1. The central nervous system
2. Visceral or sympathetic nervous system
3. Peripheral nervous system
1. The central nervous system: is distinguished into 3
regions:
– the brain or supraoesophageal ganglion
– sub-oesophageal ganglion
– ventral nerve cord which are interconnected by
the commissures
i .The brain is situated in the head, just above the
oesophagus region, therefore it is also known as
 The brain is always differentiated into 3 parts:
• Protocerebrum - innervates the compound eyes and the ocelli
• Deutocerebrum - innervates the antennae.
• Tritocerebrum - innervates sympathetic nervous system and
labrum.
The brain connects to a large nerve ganglion (nerve cell bundle)
located under the oesophagus by way of a paired nerve cord that
branches around the oesophagus.
 This special ganglion, called the sub-oesophageal ganglion,
innervates the mouthparts and the salivary ducts and attaches to
the ventral nerve cord.
 The ventral nerve cord is composed of a series of ganglia attached
to one another by paired connectives, forming a kind of chain.
 Typically, there is one ganglion in each thoracic segment and, in
many species, one in each abdominal segment.
 Nerves arise from each ganglion and branch and innervate both
 2.Visceral or sympathetic nervous system

• The main component of the visceral or sympathetic nervous system

is called stomodeal nervous system.
• This N.S control the activities of the anterior gut and the dorsal
vessel. It consists of a frontal ganglion connected to the brain and to
other small ganglia.
• These ganglia give rise to paired nerves that innervate the digestive
tract and neuro-endocrine glands, the corpora cardiaca and the
corpora allata glands, which both are involved in insect growth.
• Other parts of the visceral nervous system include the ventral
sympathetic system, which innervate the spiracles of each segment
in some insects, and a caudal sympatric system, which is involved in
activities of internal sexual organs.
3.Peripheral nervous system : consists of all the nerves
radiating from the ganglia of the central and sympathetic nervous
system.
Fig. Organization of the central nervous system in generalized form.
Organization of the C.N.S in generalized form
Fig. Insect brain and associated structures. (A) Top aspect (B) Side aspect
 Transmission of nerve impulse

Nerve impulse: is the message that travels along a neuron . Occurs in two steps:
1.Axonal transmission: Nerve impulse transmission takes place along the axon by
changing of the permeability of the axon to Na+and K+upon stimulation by external
stimulus.
 A normal resting cell (when there is no impulse transmission) has more positively
charged Na+ ions on the outside of the cell than on the inside, is due to the
movement of Na+ from axoplasm to the outside of the axons. On the other hand
the K+ are more abundant in the axoplasm. In the resting condition the cell is said
to be polarized.
 Upon stimulation by an external stimulus the permeability of the membrane is
changed and the flow of Na+ ions stops. This causes the movement of sodium ions
inside the axons and depolarization of the membrane takes place. The
depolarization of one point on the cell membrane causes the adjacent portion of
the cell membrane to change its permeability as well, and it also depolarizes. Thus
a wave of depolarization passes along the length of the neuron from one end to
the other.
After the synaptic transmission, the Ach is hydrolyzed into acetic acid and choline by
the action of enzyme Acetyl Cholinesterase. The Ach acts as a stimulus to the
receptor axons.
 2.Synaptic transmission:
 as the nerve impulse reaches the end of the axon, it
stimulates the release of a molecule that stimulates
depolarization of next neuron in the chain.
 Transmission across the synapse takes place with the help of
a neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (Ach), stored in the
synaptic vesicles.
 As soon as the impulse reaches the terminal end of the
axon, the intermediate wall dissolves and the
neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic gap.
 The Ach comes in contact with the post synaptic terminal of
the next neuron having Ach receptors. The Ach molecules
bind with the Ach-receptors present on the post synaptic
terminal. It changes the permeability of the membrane,
causing depolarization and this initiates propagation of nerve
 Diagrammatic illustration of nerve impulse transmission. (A)
polarized state (B) and (C) depolarized condition showing impulse
conduction (D) repolarization of membrane (E) synaptic transmission
 3.6 The Endocrine System
 Endocrine glands are ductless structures or tissues that produce hormones and
secrete them to the blood for distribution and works within the same individual
 pheromones are secreted by ducted, exocrine glands and are released to the
outside environment and affect other individuals of the same species.
Endocrine system is composed of:
i. Glandular nerve cells (neurosecretory cells)
ii. Neurohaemal organs (or storage release organs)
iii. Independent organs (Glands) - are especial structures having relations with
corpora cardiaca, corpora allata, and prothoracic glands.
 Glandular nerve cells (neurosecretory cells) ; are found in the brain and
various ganglia of the nervous system. Their secretion is called neurosecretory
material or neurosecretion.
 They secrete a hormone known as the brain hormone, w/c is a mixture of
several hormones secreted by different types of neurosecretory cells. The axons
of neurosecretory cells terminate in storage and release sites (neurohaemal
organs) or run directly to their target organ.
 The brain hormone activates other endocrine glands and so directly or
indirectly controls almost all life processes.
 Some Hormonally Regulated Phenomena
I. Control of metamorphosis: a variety of hormones are involved &the most important
ones are:
a. Brain hormone b. Ecdysone c. Juvenile hormone
1. Brain hormone; secreted by the neurosecretory cells in the brain & the hormone
passes down the nerve axons of these cells and accumulates in the corpus
cardaicum.
The hormone has indirect effect on metamorphosis. That is to control the secretion of
the prothoracic glands, i.e., it stimulates the prothoracic gland to produce ecdysone
hormone.
2. Ecdysone: also known as moulting hormone. Secreted by the prothoracic glands or
ecdysial glands. Fraenkel,1935 suggested that the growth of the larva into the pupa
was dependent on a hormone secreted somewhere in the anterior end.
Ecdysone is composed of two closely related molecules: alpha- ecdysone and beta-
ecdysone and it is steroidal in nature.
3. Juvenile hormone (JH): is secreted by the corpora allata, paired or unpaired
cephalic endocrine glands. Its chief function is to maintain the immature stages, i.e.,
larvae or nymphs of insects without causing pupation or the development of adult
stages, i.e., actual metamorphosis is blocked. In a normal metamorphosing insect the
corpola allata decline their secretory activity and thus a sudden change from an
immature young stage to adult happens.
 Cont…

II. Hormonal control of heart beat: the corpus cardiacum plays an important role in
controlling the beating of insect heart.
III. Hormonal control of diapauses : diapause is a period of suspended development at
any stage of the life cycle, under adverse conditions accompanied by greatly decreased
metabolism. It is a phenomenon governed by a variety of external and internal factors.
 This is an adaptation to unfavorable environmental conditions like cold, draught,
extremes of temperatures, humidity, photoperiod, nutritional, vitamin, and other
deficiencies.
 Other equally responsible factors are the endocrine glands. The diapause caused by
the deficiency of the brain hormone and moulting hormone is the most common type
IV. Hormonal control of reproduction: both the corpus allatum hormone and brain
hormone control egg maturation. The principal function of both hormones is to
promote the incorporation of the proteinaceous and lipid yolk in the growing oocytes.
 The neurosecretory cells stimulate and activate the corpora allata ,whose secretion
facilitates yolk synthesis and yolk deposition in the eggs, i.e. maturation of eggs.
V. Hormonal control of metabolism; almost all vital events, including metabolism of
proteins, lipid, carbohydrate and water are controlled by the insect hormones.
 The pheromones
pheromones : maintain the social attraction of an insect
colony. It is a communication chemical which function
to transmit specific bits of information to the members
of a single population.
Phermones are produced in several specialized tissues or
glands called exocrine glands, w/c evacuate their
contents into the environment in response to specific
stimuli.
Many aspects of insect biology and behavior are
controlled by pheromones. The pheromones which
have been identified are sex pheromones, trail marking
pheromones, swarming pheromones, aggregation
pheromones, alarm pheromones, territorial-marking
pheromones, spacing pheromones, etc.
 3.7 The Reproductive System
In most insects, sexes are separate and sexual dimorphism is distinct,
i.e., the male and female individuals can be easily identified by
examining the tips of the abdomen.
The female reproductive organs: consist of a pair of ovaries. Each
ovary is usually made up of a bundle of several tubular ovarioles (egg
tubes) in which eggs are formed.
 Eggs pass through the pedicels (col., the calyx) into paired lateral
oviducts and then into a common oviduct. From the oviduct, eggs
move to the vagina, w/r they are fertilized and held for laying.
 The organ involved in fertilization is the spermatheca, which receives
and stores sperms after copulation.
 A spermathecal gland supplies nutrients for maintaining the sperm
before it is dispensed.
 Paired accessory glands secrete the egg case or capsule (protective
covering) or a substance for cementing the eggs together or
fastening them into other objects after it has been fertilized.
Diagrammatic representation of a female reproductive system
 Ovariole
 Ovariole consists of 3 distinct parts: (a) a terminal filament (b) an
egg tube and (c) a supporting stalk or pedicel.
 The distal end of an ovariole is the terminal filament which joins other
similar filaments to form the suspensory ligament.
 Two ligaments join to form a median ligament which keeps the ovaries
in position. The egg tube contains germ cell and their derivatives the
germarium and vitellarium.
 The germarium – consists of a mass of cells from w/c are
differentiated the primordial germ cells & the nutritive cells.
 These germ cells develop into oogonia and then into oocytes or young
egg cells which are accompanied by nurse cells (nutritive cells).
 The vitellarium - is the proximal portion of the ovariole which
contains a series of developing eggs and nutritive cells (nurse cells)
when present.
 The pedicels (stalks) - are short ducts which connect the ovarioles
with the lateral oviduct.
 Types of ovarioles
3 Types of ovarioles are present based upon the
presence or absence & location of nutritive cells
1. Panoistic type - nutritive cells are wanting (absent).
This is primitive type of ovariole. Eggs get food
from epidermal sheath. E.g. Orthoptera, Isoptera.
2. Polytrophic type - nutritive cells are present
around the oocytes and alternate with them. E.g.
Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera.
3. Acrotrophic or telotrophic type - nutritive cells
are present but are confined to the apex of each
ovariole. As they are far from the ova, the ova get
their food by means of long protoplasmic nutritive
cords. E.g. Some Hemiptera and some Coleoptera.
Histology of ovariole
 The male reproductive organs
 Consists of a pair of testes, the same position as the female ovaries.
 Each testis is made up many sperm tubes (testicular follicles)
 Sperm are produced, developed, and stored in the sperm tubes and move
through narrow vasa efferentia, w/c empty into a common duct, the vas
deferens.
 Sperm continue through the vas deferens and are held in a storage, the
seminal vesicle, where they combine with secretions of paired accessory
glands to form semen.
 During copulation, semen from the seminal vesicle moves through the
ejaculatory duct and out the penis.
 During mating the male introduce sperm by means of a penis , aedeagus
into the female's vagina.
 Sperm is deposited in or near the spermatheca, and is subsequently used
to fertilize the eggs.
 In some insects, a single mating will provide the females with all the
sperm she will ever need, while in others, the insects mate repeatedly to
Diagrammatic representation of a typical M.R.S
 Zones of testicular follicle
1.Germarium (Zone of spermatogonia) - contains
densely packed germ cells or spermatogonia
which undergo multiplication.
2. Zone of spermatocytes - this is where
spermatogoina increase in size, undergo repeated
mitosis and develop into spermatocytes.
3. Zone of maturation - this is zone of division and
reduction, where the spermatocytes undergo
meiosis and give rise to spermatids.
4. Zone of transformation - this is where the
spermatids become transformed into
spermatozoa.
 3.8 The Sense Organs

Perception is achieved by sense organs, and behavior results from

integration of information and stimulation by the nervous system.
 The basic sense organs are sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing,
w/c are categorized as: photoreceptors, chemoreceptor's, and
mechanoreceptors
 Photoreceptors : is sense of light, and when images are
produced, it is called sight. Compound eyes are the main visual
sense organs of adult insects, and evolved along with flight ,
most insects with compound eyes also have simple eyes.
 Simple eyes ( ocelli), perceive images, color and movement, as
do compound eyes
 Some insects have no eyes and sense light through the cuticle
(dermal photoreception).
 Compound eyes are made up of individual light receptive units
called ommatidia.
 Types of compound eyes
 There are at least seven types of compound eyes, but these are
usually categorized as either apposition or superposition.
 Apposition - is common in day-flying insects, has a light
gathering apparatus, the corneal lens and crystalline cone, and a
light-sensing apparatus, the rhabdom, and each ommatidium is
isolated from one another by pigment cells. Direct bright light is
focused by each lens only onto its own rhabdom, which contains
visual pigments, and initiates a discharge of a nerve impulse.
Interpretation of messages is by association centers in the
protocerebrum of the brain, and the insect accomplishes vision.
 Superposition - these eyes have a clear zone between the light-
gathering and light-sensing apparatus (when pigments are
retracted). This permits light from as many as 30 lenses to be
focused on a single rhabdom. Such a recruitment of light results in
increased sensitivity, thereby permitting an insect to operate in dim
light such as at night.
Diag. representation of apposition type of the compound eye (3 ommatidia shown)
 Diagrammatic representation of superposition type of the
compound eye (3 ommatidia shown). With pigments retracted, light
can be focused from many lenses through the clear zone to a single rhabdom
 Cont…

1. Chemoreceptors (chemical sense organs): are mainly present on the

mouthparts, antennae,& tarsi. Insects smell by means of olfactory sensilla,
which are found mainly on the antennae, present in very large numbers to
detect very low odour of concentrations.
 Chemical communication is most important ,because it is species specific(no
confusion of message) Phermones are largely used but also allele
chemicals( both secretion of exocrine glands)
 Ants have no eyes move together by communicating through chemicals.
 Primer pheromones prepare insects for building body and modification E.g. sex
pheromones stimulate sexual activity, assemble and segregate in group
activity(e.g. Honey bee),control of castes-construction of queen cell, spacing
uniform distribution in the limited space.
 Allochemicals –use to communicate with their environment. Affects the
behavior of other species of organism
They are of two types;
i. Allomones- produce deleterious effects and are primarly defensive in nature
ii. Kairomones- benefits the receiver not the emitter E.g. odour produced by plants
helps to identify the correct host ( E.g. mosquitoes ,tsetse flies bite human
 Cont…
2. Auditory ; Produced by normal activities such as rapid vibration
of wings.
Generally insects produce sound by :
i. Pounding ,striking their head on a substratum
ii. Frictional rubbing of legs on wings and other body perts.
iii. Forced air projected through or over small openings
( spiracles),exalation and inhalation
3. Mechanoreceptors; are the most numerous sensory structures
of insects, being found over much of the body surface. The
sensilla may be hair-like, in which instance they are called
trichoid, or
dome-like (campaniform) or plate-like (placoid). Some of these
respond to pressure also.
 Many insects have temperature and humidity sensors, and some
 3.9 The Muscular System and Insect Flight

 Movement of the insect body and its appendages is produced by musculature.

 This movement of muscles and appendages is critical to important activities
such as feeding, walking, jumping, and flying.
 Muscles can be grouped into 3 categories: visceral, segmental, &
appendicular (appendage) muscles.
Visceral muscles - occur in circular, longitudinal, or oblique bands around the
digestive tract produce peristaltic movements of the gut that move food and
wastes along its length.
Segmental muscles - occur as bands that connect body segments. In the abdomen,
tergites are connected to one another by longitudinal bands, as are the sternites.
 The tergite of an abdominal segment connected to the sternite of the same
segment by oblique muscles on each side of the body.
 In the thorax, the predominant muscles are large cordlike bands that move the
legs and wings.
 Segmental muscles cause telescoping of segments necessary in moulting,
inhalation and exhalation, increasing body pressure, and locomotion in legless
individuals.
 cont…
Appendicular (appendage) muscles - Moveable appendages have
muscles either in them or attached to them.
 Appendages like the legs, which are divided into segments, have
attachments for muscles housed in the body as well as for muscles
housed directly in the appendage.
 The body muscles generally move the whole appendage, and the
segmental muscles move parts of the appendage.
 The flight of insects involves the large cordlike muscles of the thorax
that attach to tergites and sternites, indirect flight muscles, and others
that attach to the wing bases, direct flight muscles.
 The simple movements of wings up and down, does not produce the
flight. Directional movement is accomplished by contraction of direct
flight muscles, which twist the wings by raising and lowering the front
and back edges of the wings.
 The combined action of the direct and indirect flight muscles is,
therefore, to push air down and backward, and the insect is drawn
A. Contraction of the dorsoventral muscle depresses tergum, which pushes wing bases below the pleural wing process (fulcrum), thereby causing wing upstroke B. Relaxation of the dorsoventral muscles and
contraction of the basal muscle pulls wing down against the fulcrum for the power stroke.
Diagrammatic representation of the indirect flight muscle system in
insects
 Figure 3.18
• Diagrammatic representation of the indirect
flight muscle system in insects. A. Dorso
ventral muscle contraction depresses the
notum, raising the wings as in the indirect
system. B. Dorsoventral longitudinal muscle
contraction distorts the notum in such a way
as to depress the wings for the power stroke