Analysis of Algorithms
Input Algorithm Output
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for
solving a problem in a finite amount of time.
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia
Running Time (§3.1)
Most algorithms best case
transform input objects average case
worst case
into output objects. 120
The running time of an 100
algorithm typically grows
Running Time
80
with the input size.
Average case time is 60
often difficult to 40
determine. 20
We focus on the worst 0
case running time. 1000 2000 3000 4000
I nput Size
Easier to analyze
Crucial to applications such
as games, finance and
robotics
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 2
Experimental Studies
Write a program 9000
implementing the 8000
algorithm 7000
Run the program with 6000
Time (ms)
inputs of varying size 5000
and composition 4000
Use a method like 3000
System.currentTimeMillis() to 2000
get an accurate
1000
measure of the actual
running time 0
0 50 100
Plot the results I nput Size
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 3
Limitations of Experiments
It is necessary to implement the
algorithm, which may be difficult
Results may not be indicative of the
running time on other inputs not
included in the experiment.
In order to compare two algorithms,
the same hardware and software
environments must be used
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 4
Theoretical Analysis
Uses a high-level description of the
algorithm instead of an
implementation
Characterizes running time as a
function of the input size, n.
Takes into account all possible inputs
Allows us to evaluate the speed of an
algorithm independent of the
hardware/software environment
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 5
Pseudocode (§3.2)
High-level description Example: find
of an algorithm max element of
an array
More structured than Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
English prose
Input array A of n integers
Less detailed than a
program Output maximum element of A
Preferred notation for currentMax A[0]
describing algorithms for i 1 to n 1 do
Hides program design if A[i] currentMax then
issues
currentMax A[i]
return currentMax
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 6
Pseudocode Details
Control flow Method call
if … then … [else …] var.method (arg [, arg…])
while … do … Return value
repeat … until … return expression
for … do … Expressions
Indentation replaces Assignment
braces (like in Java)
Equality testing
Method declaration (like in Java)
Algorithm method (arg [, arg…]) n2 Superscripts and
Input … other mathematical
formatting allowed
Output …
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 7
The Random Access
Memory (RAM) Model
A CPU
An potentially
unbounded bank of 2
1
memory cells, each of 0
which can hold an
arbitrary number or
character
Memory cells are numbered and
accessing any cell in memory takes
unit time. Analysis of Algorithms
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia 8
Primitive Operations
Basic computations
performed by an algorithm Examples:
Evaluating an
Identifiable in pseudocode expression
Largely independent from Assigning a
the programming language value to a
variable
Exact definition not Indexing into an
important (we will see why
array
later) Calling a method
Assumed to take a constant Returning from a
amount of time in the RAM method
model
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 9
Counting Primitive
Operations (§3.4)
By inspecting the pseudocode, we can determine the
maximum number of primitive operations executed by
an algorithm, as a function of the input size
Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
currentMax A[0] 2
for i 1 to n 1 do 2n
if A[i] currentMax then 2(n 1)
currentMax A[i] 2(n 1)
{ increment counter i } 2(n 1)
return currentMax 1
Total 8n 2
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 10
Estimating Running Time
Algorithm arrayMax executes 8n 2 primitive
operations in the worst case. Define:
a = Time taken by the fastest primitive operation
b = Time taken by the slowest primitive
operation
Let T(n) be worst-case time of arrayMax.
Then
a (8n 2) T(n) b(8n 2)
Hence, the running time T(n) is bounded by
two linear functions
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 11
Growth Rate of Running
Time
Changing the hardware/ software
environment
Affects T(n) by a constant factor, but
Does not alter the growth rate of T(n)
The linear growth rate of the
running time T(n) is an intrinsic
property of algorithm arrayMax
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 12
Seven Important Functions
(§3.3)
Seven functions
that often appear in 1E+30
algorithm analysis: 1E+28
1E+26
Cubic
Constant 1 1E+24 Quadratic
Logarithmic log n 1E+22 Linear
Linear n 1E+20
1E+18
N-Log-N n log n 1E+16
T (n )
Quadratic n2 1E+14
Cubic n3 1E+12
1E+10
Exponential 2n 1E+8
1E+6
In a log-log chart, 1E+4
1E+2
the slope of the line 1E+0
corresponds to the 1E+0 1E+2 1E+4 1E+6 1E+8 1E+10
growth rate of the n
function
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 13
Constant Factors
1E+26
The growth rate 1E+24 Quadratic
Quadratic
is not affected by 1E+22
1E+20 Linear
constant factors
1E+18 Linear
or 1E+16
lower-order terms 1E+14
T (n )
1E+12
Examples 1E+10
1E+8
102n 105 is a
1E+6
linear function 1E+4
105n2 108n is a 1E+2
1E+0
quadratic function
1E+0 1E+2 1E+4 1E+6 1E+8 1E+10
n
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 14
Big-Oh Notation (§3.4)
10,000
Given functions f(n) 3n
and g(n), we say that 2n+10
1,000
f(n) is O(g(n)) if there
are positive constants n
c and n0 such that 100
f(n) cg(n) for n n0
10
Example: 2n 10 is O(n)
2n 10 cn
(c 2) n 10 1
1 10 100 1,000
n 10(c 2) n
Pick c 3 and n0 10
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 15
Big-Oh Example
1,000,000
n^2
Example: the 100n
100,000
function n2 is not 10n
O(n) 10,000 n
n2 cn
nc 1,000
The above
100
inequality cannot be
satisfied since c
10
must be a constant
1
1 10 100 1,000
n
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 16
More Big-Oh
Examples
7n-2
7n-2 is O(n)
need c > 0 and n0 1 such that 7n-2 c•n for n n0
this is true for c = 7 and n0 = 1
3n3 + 20n2 + 5
3n3 + 20n2 + 5 is O(n3)
need c > 0 and n0 1 such that 3n3 + 20n2 + 5 c•n3 for n
n0
this is true
3 log n for
+5 c = 4 and n0 = 21
3 log n + 5 is O(log n)
need c > 0 and n0 1 such that 3 log n + 5 c•log n for n
n0
© 2004 this is true
Goodrich, for
Tamassia c = 8 Analysis
and n0of= 2
Algorithms 17
Big-Oh and Growth Rate
The big-Oh notation gives an upper bound on the
growth rate of a function
The statement “f(n) is O(g(n))” means that the
growth rate of f(n) is no more than the growth rate
of g(n)
We can use the big-Oh notation to rank functions
according to their growth rate
f(n) is O(g(n)) g(n) is O(f(n))
g(n) grows Yes No
more
f(n) grows more No Yes
Same growth Yes Yes
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 18
Big-Oh Rules
If is f(n) a polynomial of degree d, then f(n)
is O(nd), i.e.,
1. Drop lower-order terms
2. Drop constant factors
Use the smallest possible class of functions
Say “2n is O(n)” instead of “2n is O(n2)”
Use the simplest expression of the class
Say “3n 5 is O(n)” instead of “3n 5 is O(3n)”
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 19
Asymptotic Algorithm
Analysis
The asymptotic analysis of an algorithm
determines the running time in big-Oh notation
To perform the asymptotic analysis
We find the worst-case number of primitive
operations executed as a function of the input size
We express this function with big-Oh notation
Example:
We determine that algorithm arrayMax executes at
most 8n 2 primitive operations
We say that algorithm arrayMax “runs in O(n) time”
Since constant factors and lower-order terms are
eventually dropped anyhow, we can disregard
them when counting primitive operations
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 20
Computing Prefix
Averages
We further illustrate
35
asymptotic analysis with X
two algorithms for prefix 30 A
averages
25
The i-th prefix average of
an array X is average of 20
the first (i 1) elements of 15
X:
10
A[i] X[0] X[1] … X[i])/(i+1)
5
Computing the array A of 0
prefix averages of another 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
array X has applications to
financial analysis
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 21
Prefix Averages
(Quadratic)
The following algorithm computes prefix
averages in quadratic time by applying the
definition
Algorithm prefixAverages1(X, n)
Input array X of n integers
Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations
A new array of n integers n
for i 0 to n 1 do n
s X[0] n
for j 1 to i do 1 2 … (n
1)
s s X[j] 1 2 … (n
1)
A[i] s (i 1) n
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 22
return A 1
Arithmetic Progression
7
The running time of
6
prefixAverages1 is
O(1 2 …n) 5
The sum of the first n 4
integers is n(n 1) 2 3
There is a simple
visual proof of this fact 2
Thus, algorithm 1
prefixAverages1 runs in 0
O(n2) time
1 2 3 4 5 6
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 23
Prefix Averages (Linear)
The following algorithm computes prefix
averages in linear time by keeping a running
sum
Algorithm prefixAverages2(X, n)
Input array X of n integers
Output array A of prefix averages of X
#operations
A new array of n integers n
s0 1
for i 0 to n 1 do n
s s X[i] n
A[i] s (i 1) n
return A 1
Algorithm prefixAverages2 runs in O(n) time
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 24
Math you need to Review
Summations
Logarithms and Exponents
properties of logarithms:
logb(xy) = logbx + logby
logb (x/y) = logbx - logby
logbxa = alogbx
logba = logxa/logxb
properties of exponentials:
a(b+c) = aba c
abc = (ab)c
Proof techniques ab /ac = a(b-c)
Basic probability b = a logab
bc = a c*logab
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 25
Relatives of Big-Oh
big-Omega
f(n) is (g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0
and an integer constant n0 1 such that
f(n) c•g(n) for n n0
big-Theta
f(n) is (g(n)) if there are constants c’ > 0
and c’’ > 0 and an integer constant n0 1
such that c’•g(n) f(n) c’’•g(n) for n n0
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 26
Intuition for
Asymptotic Notation
Big-Oh
f(n) is O(g(n)) if f(n) is
asymptotically less than or equal
to g(n)
big-Omega
f(n) is (g(n)) if f(n) is
asymptotically greater than or
equal to g(n)
big-Theta
f(n) is (g(n)) if f(n) is
asymptotically equal to g(n)
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 27
Example Uses of
the Relatives of
Big-Oh
5n2 is (n2)
f(n) is (g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0 1
such that f(n) c•g(n) for n n0
let c = 5 and n0 = 1
5n2 is (n)
f(n) is (g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0 1
such that f(n) c•g(n) for n n0
let c = 1 and n0 = 1
5n2 is (n2)
f(n) is (g(n)) if it is (n2) and O(n2). We have already seen the former,
for the latter recall that f(n) is O(g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and
an integer constant n0 1 such that f(n) < c•g(n) for n n0
Let c = 5 and n0 = 1
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 28
