1.

NATIONALISM
DEFENCE ACADEMY
SUBJECT - GEOGRAPHY
SYLLABUS

• The Earth, its shape and size. Latitudes and Longitudes, Concept of time.
International Date Line. Movements of Earth and their effects.
• Origin of Earth. Rocks and their classification; Weathering—Mechanical and
Chemical, Earthquakes and Volcanoes.
• Ocean Currents and Tides. Atmosphere and its composition; Temperature and
Atmospheric Pressure, Planetary Winds, Cyclones and Anti-cyclones; Humidity;
Condensation and Precipitation; Types of Climate, Major Natural regions of the
World.
• Regional Geography of India—Climate, Natural vegetation. Mineral and Power
resources; location and distribution of agricultural and Industrial activities.
• Important Sea ports and main sea, land and air routes of India. Main items of
Imports and Exports of India.
SIZE, AGE AND MASS OF EARTH
THE EARTH
● Pythagoras (582-507 B.C.) believed that the
Earth was a sphere. He was the first to suggest
that the earth was shaped like a globe.
The Earth is not perfectly
spherical, but is an oblate
spheroid, meaning it's slightly
flattened at the poles and bulges
at the equator. This shape is also
called a geoid.
The term "geoid" was first described
by Carl Friedrich Gauss. He referred
to it as the "mathematical figure of
the Earth".
● The earth has two basic movements: 1)
Rotation and 2) Revolution.
Rotation of Earth
• The earth completes one rotation in 23
hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds. It
rotates in an eastward direction
opposite to the apparent movement of
the sun.
• ● The earth’s axis is tilted at an angle
of 23½ degree angle from a
perpendicular to the elliptic plane.
• ● The velocity of earth’s rotation varies
depending on the distance of a given
place from the equator.
• ● The rotational velocity at the poles
is nearly zero. The greatest velocity of
the rotation is found at the equator
Effects of Earth’s
Rotation
• Alternate occurrence of day and
night
• Sunrise and sunset
• difference in time
• Coriolis force
• Tide
• Centrigugal force
 Revolution of the Earth
• The movement of the earth in its orbit around the sun
in an anti-clockwise direction, that is, from west to
east is called revolution of the earth.
• ● The period taken by the earth to complete one
revolution around the sun is 365 days and 6 hours.
• ● The distance of the earth from sun varies time to
time due to the elliptical shape of the orbit.
• ● January 3rd the earth is closest to the sun and it is
said to be at Perihelion. At Perihelion, the distance is
147 million km.
• ● July 4th the earth is farthest from the sun and it is
said to be at Aphelion. At Aphelion the distance of the
earth is 152 million km away from the sun.
Effects of revolution of the earth
• The revolution of earth results in:
• ● Cycle of seasons
• ● Variation in length of days and nights
• ● Variation in distribution of solar energy over the earth and the
temperature zones
 Seasons
• ● The seasons are caused due to the
combined effect of the earth’s revolution and
the tilt of its axis in the same direction
throughout the year.
• ● The four seasons are spring, summer,
autumn and winter.
• ● The earth is moving around the sun on its
tilted axis. It varies when observed on a daily
and monthly basis, at different times of the
year.
• ● On 21 March and 23 September, the sun
rises precisely in the east and sets exactly in
the west.
Equinoxes
• ● During the equinoxes the periods of
day light and darkness are equal all over
the world. It happens on two days of the
year 21 march and 23th September.
• ● On 21 March the sun is directly
overhead at the equator. This position of
the sun is called spring equinox.
• ● On 23 September the sun is directly
overhead on the equator and it is called
autumn equinox.
Solstice
• Solstice is one of the two dates in the year on which the sun
reaches greatest altitude north or south of the equator and is
directly overhead along one of the lines of the tropics.
• The Moon, for example, reaches both apogee and
perigee during its 27-day orbit around Earth
Eclipses
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE, concept
of time , International date line
 Longitude
• Longitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth surface
along the equator, east or west from the prime meridian.
• ● The semi-circles running from pole to pole or from north to south
are known as meridians of longitude and distance between them is
measured in degrees of longitude.
• ● Prime meridian is the semi-circle from pole to pole, from which
all the other meridians radiate east wards and west wards up to
180.
• ● The time at 0° longitude is called Greenwich Mean Time. It is
based on local time of the meridian passing through Greenwich
near London.
• ● 180 degree meridian (International date line) is exactly opposite
to the prime meridian.
• ● Indian government has accepted the meridian of 82.5 degree
east for standard time, which is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of the
Greenwich Mean time.
• ● The International Date Line running over the Pacific Ocean.
• There are 181 lines of latitude(including equator)
and 360 lines of longitude(including prime meridian
latitude
• ● Latitude is the angular distance of a point on earth surface from the
centre of earth. They are measured in degrees. ● The latitude specifies a
location's distance north or south of the equator. Important Parallels
Latitudes ● Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the Northern Hemisphere ●
Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the Southern Hemisphere ● Arctic Circle at
66½° north of the equator ● Antarctic Circle at 66½° south of the equator

• Equator ● Equator is an imaginary line running on the globe that divides

it into two equal parts. ● Northern half of the earth is known as the
Northern Hemisphere and Southern half is known as the Southern
Hemisphere.
TIME CALCULATION AND LONGITUDE
CALCULATION(west of prime meridian (-), East(+)
• Example 1 : Determine the local time of Thimpu (Bhutan) located at 90° east longitude when the time at Greenwich
(0°) is 12.00 noon.
• Statement : The time increases at a rate of 4 minutes per one degree of longitude, east of the Prime Meridian.
• Solution : Difference between Greenwich and Thimpu = 90° of longitudes
• Total Time difference = 90 x 4 = 360 minutes
• = 360/60 hours = 6 hours
• Local time of Thimpu is 6 hours more than that at Greenwich, i.e. 6.00 p.m.

• Example 2 : Determine the local time of New Orleans (the place, which was worst affected by Katrina Hurricane in
October 2005), located at 90 degree West longitude when the time at Greenwich (0 degree) is 12.00 noon.
• Statement : The time decrease, at a rate of 4 minutes per one degree of longitude, west of the prime meridian.
• Solution : Difference between Greenwich and New Orleans = 90° of longitudes
• Total Time difference = 90 x 4 = 360 minutes
• = 360/60 hours = 6 hours
• Local time of New Orleans is 6 hours less than that at Greenwich, i.e. 6.00 a. m.
INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE
International Date Line (IDL)
• The International Date Line (IDL) is the line extending
between the South and North Poles that is the boundary
between one calendar day and the next. It passes
through the Pacific Ocean, roughly following the 180.0°
line of longitude and deviating to pass around some
territories and island groups.
• halfway around the world from the Prime Meridian,
another imaginary time zone line.
West of international date line (+)
and east (-) of a day
Origin of Earth
• EVOLUTION OF EARTH
• EARLY THEORIES – NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS, PLANETISMAL THEORY
• MODERN THEORY - BIG BANG THEORY
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
- IMMANEUL KANT AND LAPLACE
PLANETISMAL HYPOTHESIS
- CHAMBERLIN AND MOULTON
BIG BANG THEORY(origin of
universe) – expanding universe
-GEORGE LAMAITRE
EVIDENCE – EDWIN HUBBLE

he Big Bang Theory proposes

that the universe originated
from a massive explosion,
about 13.8 billion years ago
Rocks and their classification
• ● The earth’s crust (Lithosphere) is composed of rocks. An aggregate
of minerals on the Earth’s crust is called ‘rock’. It may be hard and
compact like ‘granite’ or soft as ‘clay’ or loose as ‘sand’. ● The
scientific study of rocks is called petrology. ● Based on formation,
rocks are classified as: o Igneous o Sedimentary o Metamorphic
igneous rocks
• The igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma.
These rocks are also called as the ‘Primary Rocks’ or ‘Parent Rocks’ as
all other rocks are formed from these rocks. ● They do not contain
fossils. ● They are associated with the volcanic activities. ● These
rocks are useful for construction work. ● Granite, pegmatite, basalt,
etc are some of the examples of igneous rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
• ● It is formed due to the aggregation and compaction of sediments
derived from the older rocks, plants, animals and contain fossils of
plants. ● The bodies of plants and animals that fall on the deposits get
embedded in the layers and form Fossils. Sandstone, limestone, chalk,
gypsum, coal and conglomerate are examples of sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphic Rocks
Soils
• Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids and
organisms that together support life. It is known as the ‘skin of the
earth’. ● Soils are produced from rocks (parent material) through the
processes of weathering and natural erosion. ● World Soil Day is
observed on 5th December. ● The basic components of soil are
mineral, organic matter, water and air. It consists of about 45%
mineral, 5% organic matter, 25% of water and 25% air. ● Soils are
classified on the basis of their formation, colour, physical and
chemical properties. ● Based on these, soil is classified into six major
types. They are: Alluvial soil, Black soil, Red soil, Laterite soil,
Mountain soil, Desert soil.
Types of soil
• Class 10 Geography book
• Chapter 1
Weathering—Mechanical and
Chemical
• Weathering is the term used to describe the process of
rocks and minerals dissolving or breaking down on the
Earth’s surface as a result of the action of the sun and
water.
There are three main types of weathering, which are as
follows:
• Mechanical Weathering,
• Chemical weathering, and
• Biological Weathering.
Mechanical/physical weathering
• Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied forces.
• The applied forces could be:
• (i) gravitational forces such as overburden pressure, load and shearing stress;
• (ii) expansion forces due to temperature changes, crystal growth or animal activity;
• (iii) water pressures controlled by wetting and drying cycles.
• (iv) Freeze-thaw occurs when water seeps into cracks over time, freezes and expands,
eventually causing the rock to crumble.

• Many of these forces are applied both at the surface and within different earth materials leading to rock
fracture.
• Most of the physical weathering processes are caused by thermal expansion and pressure release.
• These processes are small and slow but can cause great damage to the rocks because of continued fatigue
the rocks suffer due to repetition of contraction and expansion.
chemical weathering
1. A group of weathering processes viz; solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation and reduction act on the
rocks to decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine clastic state through chemical reactions by oxygen,
surface and/or soil water and other acids.
2. Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along with heat must be present to speed up all chemical
reactions.
3. Over and above the carbon dioxide present in the air, decomposition of plants and animals increases the
quantity of carbon dioxide underground.
4. These chemical reactions on various minerals are very much similar to the chemical reactions in a
laboratory
types
There are several types of chemical weathering, the most
significant of which are as follows:
• Solution –
Acidic rainwater is responsible for the removal of rock from
solution. The weathering of limestone is accelerated by
rainwater containing dissolved carbon dioxide (this process
is sometimes called carbonation).
• Hydrolysis –
Acidic water causes the breakdown of rock, resulting in the
formation of clay and soluble salts.
• Oxidation –
• Weathering is the breakdown of rock caused by oxygen and
water, which often results in iron-rich rocks having a rusty-
colored weathered surface.
Earthquakes
• Origin
• Types
• Seismic waves – body waves and surface waves
• Earthquake shadow zone
• Measurements – Richter scale and Mercalli scale
• Effects -
Earthquake waves
• An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the surface. Reflection causes waves to
rebound whereas refraction makes waves move in different directions.
• Earthquake waves are basically of two types —
1. BODY WAVES - Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all
directions travelling through the body of the earth
2. SURFACE WAVES- The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves called
surface waves. The surface waves are the last to report on seismograph. These waves are more destructive.
They cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse of structures occurs.
Types of body waves
• P-waves
1. P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface.
2. These are also called ‘primary waves’.
3. The P-waves are similar to sound waves.
4. They travel through gaseous, liquid and solid materials.
5. P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave
6. It creates density differences in the material leading to stretching and squeezing of the material
• S – waves
1. S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag.
2. These are called secondary waves.
3. An important fact about S-waves is that they can travel only through solid materials.
4. This characteristic of the S-waves is quite important. It has helped scientists to understand the structure of the
interior of the earth.
5. The direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical plane.
6. They create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass
Earthquake shadowzone
Types of earthquakes and effects of
earthquakes with examples
• Separate notes
volcanoes
• Separate ppt
Ocean Currents and Tides
• Separate notes in pdf format
OCEANIC CURRENTS
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
RECENT CYCLONES
TEMPERATURE
• NORMAL LAPSE RATE
• INVERSION OF TEMPERATURE
• INSOLATION
• SOLAR RADIATION
• TERRESTRIAL RADIATION
• ALBEDO
• PROCESS OF HEATING AND COOLING – CONDUCTION,CONVECTION
AND ADVECTION
CONDENSATION
• DEW POINT
• SATURATION
• SUBLIMATION
• CONDITION REQUIRED FOR CONDENSATION
• FORMS OF CONDENSATION - dew, frost, fog and clouds(CONDITION
REQUIRED, DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EACH FORM)
PRECIPITATION
• FORMS OF PRECIPITATION – RAINFALL, SNOWFALL, SLEET AND
HAILSTONES.

• TYPES OF RAINFALL – CONVECTIONAL, OROGRAPHIC AND FRONTAL

HUMIDITY
• ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
• RELATIVE HUMIDITY
• CONDITION AND AREA OF HIGH HUMIDITY AND LOW HUMIDITY