Workshop/

Manufacturing Process
ES-me-192 / ES-me-292
l-t-p: 1-0-4
credit: 3

1
WELDING
Fabrication Process

 Joining of two or more parts to make a single component is

known as fabrication process.
 The various fabrication processes can be classified as under:
 Mechanical joining by means of bolts, screws and rivets.
 Adhesive bonding by employing synthetic glues as epoxy resin.
 Welding , Brazing and soldering.
 Selection:
Permanent , semi permanent or temporary
 WELDING
 Welding which is the process of joining two metallic components
for the desired purpose, can be defined as the process of joining
two similar or dissimilar metallic components with the application
of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or
without the use of filler metal.
 Heat may be obtained by-
 chemical reaction,
 electric arc,
 electrical resistance,
 frictional heat,
 Blacksmith’s fire
Welding is used for making permanent joints.
– It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft
frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural works,
tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.
Factors:
 Composition of the metal
 Strength of the metal at elevated temperature
 Thermal properties of the metal
 Welding techniques, fluxing material and filler material
Examples are iron,steel,cast iron, low alloy steel & stainless
steel.
ADVANTAGES
Lighter than riveted joints
Joints Provides maximum efficiency
Alterations and additions can be made in existing
structure
Less time
More strength
Welding structure is smooth in appearance, therefore
it looks pleasing.
DISADVANTAGES
Development of stresses due to uneven heating and
cooling
Highly skilled labor and supervision
Requirement of edge preparation
Crack development possibility
Jigs & fixtures are required to hold the parts
Inspection is difficult than riveting or bolted work.
 Classification of welding
Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding
The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic
state and forced together by external pressure. No filler
material is used.
(Ex) Resistance welding
Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding
The edge of the workpiece to be joined and the filler
material are heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify
(Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding
FORGE WELDING
FUSION WELDING(non-pressure)
Cold pressure welding
Modern process has been developed during recent
years
No heat is required
Two parts to be welded are subjected to high pressure
which results in inter-surface molecular fusion of the
parts to be joined.
Use for non ferrous metals particularly aluminium and
copper
Types of Weld joint
There are 5 basic joint types in welding
 Butt joint: Two materials are in the same plane, joined
from the edges.
 Corner joint:The corners of two materials form a right
angle and joined.
 Lap joint: Two parts overlaps.
 Tee joint: One part is perpendicular to the other,
making a T shape.
 Edge joint: Edges of the two materials joined.

12
TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS
Quality weld
Types of Classification Details
Joints
Lap Joint Single Transverse • Up to thickness 3 mm
Double Transverse
Parallel
Butt Joint Square • Do not Require beveling
upto 3-5 mm
Single-V • Require beveling between
5 to 15.5 mm to V or U
Double V groove
Single U • Above 16 mm have
Double U groove on both sides
• Above 20 mm

Corner Used for light and heavy

Joint guage sheet
Edge Joint Economical with plates
having thickness less than 5
mm
T-Joint Suitable upto 3 mm
Blacksmith’s forge welding
The metal parts to be welded are heated in
blacksmith’s furnace to a plastic state
(about 13000 C) then pressed together by
hand or power hammer.
Slow process, convenient for mild steel ,low
carbon steel, wrought iron.
Film of scale (oxide) formation result will be
failure.
Calcined borax for mild steel
 GENERAL WELDING PROCEDURE

1. Surface Cleaning:
Surfaces of the parts to be welded need to be
thoroughly cleaned to remove dust, dirt, oil,
grease etc.

2. Edge Preparation:
Preparing a contour at the edges of the
pieces to be joined. It may involve beveling or
grooving. This is done in order to get the
fusion or penetration through the entire
thickness of the member.

3. Clamping:
Pieces to be welded are clamped suitably so
4. Safety Devices:
Goggles & shields to protect the eyes, Apron to
prevent the sparks and flying globules of molten
metal, shoes, hand gloves etc.

5.Initial Weld:
Initial tack welds are done at the opposite corners
of the joint to secure the pieces together. Any cracks
at this stage must be removed as they cause residual
stresses.

6.Intermediate and Final Welding:

The weld joint is formed through various weaving
movements (weld beads). During this process, filler
metal and a suitable flux are used. After the
intermediate run of welding, final run is taken.

7.Removal of Excess Material:

ELECTRIC RESISTANCE
WELDING
This is also a type of pressure welding. It is used for
joining pieces of sheet metal or wire . It is usually
adopted for mass production. High amperage (60 to
4000) & low voltage (6 to 10).pressure varying from
25 to 55MPa.
The amount of heat generated by the resistance of
the metal pieces at the points of contact is given by
H = I2RT
H = Total heat generated in the work
I = current in amperes
R = Resistance of the metal being welded , in ohms
T = time during which electric current flows, in
seconds
Continue…
Advantages
 It is well suited for mass production
 The weld are quickly made.
 The skilled operators are not required.
 It is economical
Disadvantages
 The resistance welding equipment has
high initial cost.
 only lap joints
Types of electric resistance
welding
Spot welding

The spot welding is used for welding lap joints.

(0.025 to 1.25mm)
The plates to be joined together are placed between
the two electrodes tips of copper and copper alloys
A high amperage and low voltage current is passed
between electrodes.
Heat generated by electric current is rapidly
transferred from outer faces of plates to the
electrodes which are water cooled
Pressure is applied which squeezes metal
 SEAM WELDING

• Continuous pressure on the work.

• Used for making petrol tanks for automobiles,
seam welded tubes, drums
• Process is limited upto thickness of .025 to 3
mm
PROJECTION WELDING
 It is similar to spot welding except that
one of the metal pieces to be welded has
projections on its surface at the points
where weld are to be made.
The projection are made with punch press
by embosssing.
Continue…
Advantages:
• Quick process and number of welds can
be made simultaneously
• No thickness limitation
• Life of electrode is much longer
If two dissimilar metals, then projection
on metal having higher conductivity
If different thickness, then projection on
thicker metal
Butt welding
• Upset butt welding:
Same cross section,
adopted for rods, pipes
• Flash butt welding:
Used in the
manufacturing of steel
containers and welding
of mild steel shanks to
high speed steel drills
and reamers
Percussion welding
 In this welding heat is obtained from the
arc produced by a rapid discharge of stored
energy.
Electrostatic capacitors are used to store
the electrical energy
Process is very rapid .
1.5mm,sudden discharge of electricity
causing intense arc
Continue…
The process is used for welding different
tips to tools like copper to aluminium or
silver contact tips to copper, cast iron to
steel.
Arc Welding
The arc welding is a fusion welding process
in which the welding heat is obtained from
an electric arc between the work and
electrode.
The electric arc produced when two
conductors of an electric current are
touched together and then separated by a
small distance
1. Temperature of Heat produced by the
electric arc is of order 6000oC to 7000oC.
2. Most AW processes add filler metal to
increase volume and strength of weld joint
Both DC and AC current are used for welding.
Polarity in Arc welding
• In DC welding, the workpiece is connected to the
positive pole of a DC generator and the electrode to the
negative pole in order to melt greater mass of the metal
in the base material. This is called straight polarity.

• When the less heat is required at the base material, the

polarity is reversed. This is called reversed polarity.

• We can select the polarity depending upon the type of

the job. Hence, in DC arc welding, it is possible to melt
many metals which require more heat to melt.
Sl No. Aspect AC Welding DC Welding
1. Arc Stability Lower/ Unstable Higher/Stable

2. Cost Low High

3. Electrodes Only Coated Both Bare & Coated

4. Suitability Non-ferrous metals cannot be Suitable for both ferrous &

joined nonferrous metals

5. Electrical Less energy consumption per More energy consumption

energy kg of the metal deposited (3 per kg of the metal deposited
Consumption to 4 kWh) (6 to 10 kWh)

6. Moving parts No Rotating parts more

complicated
7. Polarity No choice of polarity Straight or reversed polarity
can be used depending on
the type of job and heat
required at the base metal
 Two Basic Types of AW
Electrodes
1. Bare or non coated –rarely used
2. Coated- covering with flux which is applied either by
dipping in a bath or during extrusion
Slag forming constituents are- silicate, manganese
oxide & iron oxide
Deoxidizing constituents - graphite,aluminium,wood
flour
Binding material-sodium silicate, potassium silicate,
asbestos.
Consumable – consumed during welding process
Source of filler metal in arc welding
Nonconsumable – not consumed during welding
process
Filler metal must be added separately
Consumable Electrodes
Forms of consumable electrodes
Welding rods (a.k.a. sticks) are 9 to 18 inches
and 3/8 inch or less in diameter and must be
changed frequently
Weld wire can be continuously fed from
spools with long lengths of wire, avoiding
frequent interruptions
In both rod and wire forms, electrode is
consumed by arc and added to weld joint
as filler metal
Nonconsumable Electrodes
Made of tungsten which resists melting
Gradually depleted during welding
(vaporization is principal mechanism)
Any filler metal must be supplied by a
separate wire fed into weld pool
Arc Shielding
At high temperatures in AW, metals are
chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen,
and hydrogen in air
Mechanical properties of joint can be
seriously degraded by these reactions
To protect operation, arc must be shielded
from surrounding air in AW processes
Arc shielding is accomplished by:
Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO 2
Flux
Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides
and other contaminants in welding, or
dissolves them and facilitates removal
Provides protective atmosphere for welding
Stabilizes arc
Reduces spattering
 Coating
Provides a gaseous shield to prevent oxidation
Lowers the voltage needed to establish the arc
May provide slag-blanket to protect the joint
 Add alloying elements to enhance the properties
of the joint.
Various Flux Application
Methods
Pouring granular flux onto welding
operation
Stick electrode coated with flux material
that melts during welding to cover
operation
Tubular electrodes in which flux is
contained in the core and released as
electrode is consumed
Consumable Electrode AW
Processes
Metal Arc Welding
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Flux‑Cored Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)
Uses a consumable electrode consisting of
a filler metal rod coated with chemicals
that provide flux and shielding
Sometimes called "stick welding"
Power supply, connecting cables, and
electrode holder available .
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
SMAW Applications
Used for steels, stainless steels, cast
irons, and certain nonferrous alloys
Not used or rarely used for aluminum
and its alloys, copper alloys, and
titanium
 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Uses a consumable bare metal wire as

electrode and shielding accomplished by
flooding arc with a gas
Wire is fed continuously and automatically
from a spool through the welding gun(dia
of wire 0.75mm to 1.5mm)
Shielding gases include inert gases such
as argon and helium for aluminum
welding, and active gases such as CO2 for
steel welding
Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases
eliminate slag on weld bead - no need for
manual grinding and cleaning of slag
Gas Metal Arc Welding
 GMAW Advantages over
SMAW
Better arc time because of continuous wire
electrode
Sticks must be periodically changed in
SMAW
Better use of electrode filler metal than
SMAW
End of stick cannot be used in SMAW
Higher deposition rates
Eliminates problem of slag removal
Can be readily automated
 Flux‑Cored Arc Welding
(FCAW)
It uses a continuous hollow electrode
wire containing flux within its hollow
core. The equipment required is a
constant voltage DC machine, a welding
gun, continuous wire feeder
mechanism.
Advantage is metal can be deposited at
a faster rate with deep penetration.
Use for welding steel
For mass production
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Flux‑cored arc welding. Presence or absence of externally

supplied shielding gas distinguishes the two types: (1)
self‑shielded, in which core provides ingredients for shielding,
and (2) gas‑shielded, which uses external shielding gases.
Submerged Arc Welding
(SAW)
Uses a continuous, consumable bare
wire electrode, with arc shielding
provided by a cover of granular flux
Electrode wire is fed automatically
from a coil reel
Flux introduced into joint slightly
ahead of arc by gravity from a
hopper
Completely submerges operation,
preventing sparks, spatter, and
radiation
Submerged Arc Welding

Figure 31.8 Submerged arc welding.

SAW Applications and
Products
Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g.,
I‑beams)
Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and
pressure vessels
Welded components for heavy machinery
Most steels (except hi C steel)
Not good for nonferrous metals
Plates upto 15mm thickness can be weld
Non-consumable Electrode Processes
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Plasma Arc Welding
Carbon Arc Welding
Stud Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW)
Nonconsumable gas tungsten Inert gas
welding (TIG)
Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)
Weld zone is protected by inert gas
DC with straight polarity is used with steel,
cast iron, and stainless
AC with Al, Mg alloys where ac helps in
stripping the oxide
Both hand and automatic operations are
possible
The process demands considerable skill but
produces very high-quality welds on almost
any material
No weld spatter or slag formation
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Figure 31.9 Gas tungsten arc welding.

Advantages / Disadvantages of
GTAW
Advantages:
High quality welds for suitable applications
No spatter because no filler metal through
arc
Little or no post-weld cleaning because no
flux
Disadvantages:
Generally slower and more costly than
consumable electrode AW processes
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Plasma is a gas of positive ions and free
electrons with an approximately equal
positive and negative charge.
Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle
that focuses a high velocity stream of inert
gas (argon) into arc region to form a high
velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream
Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C
(50,000F), due to construction of arc,
producing a plasma jet of small diameter
and very high energy density
Plasma Arc Welding

Figure 31.10 Plasma arc welding (PAW).

Advantages / Disadvantages of
PAW
Advantages:
Good arc stability
Better penetration control than other
AW
High travel speeds
Excellent weld quality
Can be used to weld almost any
metals
Disadvantages:
High equipment cost
Larger torch size than other AW
Tends to restrict access in some
Carbon arc welding
Carbon or graphite electrodes are used
Carbon electrodes are in amorphous form
which are considerably cheaper
Heat is obtained from an electric arc
between a carbon electrode and the work
Current of 20 to 800 amperes is used
depends on thickness of metal
CAW is used in all modern industry for
welding cast iron,steel,copper,bronze,
aluminium etc.
Solid state welding
Friction welding- use for round bars
10-25 seconds
Explosive welding (Cladding)
- fixed plate is target plate & other is flyer plate at
an angle of 15-25 degree
-distance between two plates is ¼ to ½ of the flyer
thickness
Ultrasonic welding
- 20 Khz to 60 Khz frequency
-rapid process
-used for thin strips
-maximum thickness vary from 0.38 mm to 2.5 mm
Friction welding

SSW process in which coalescence is achieved by

frictional heat combined with pressure
 When properly carried out, no melting occurs at
faying surfaces
 No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally used
 Process yields a narrow HAZ
 Can be used to join dissimilar metals
 Widely used commercial process, amenable to
automation and mass production
 Friction Welding

Figure Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact;

(2) parts brought into contact to generate friction heat; (3)
rotation stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld
created.
Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
Two components are held together, oscillatory
shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency are
applied to interface to cause coalescence
Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface
films to allow intimate contact and strong
metallurgical bonding between surfaces
Although heating of surfaces occurs,
temperatures are well below Tm
No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
Generally limited to lap joints on soft
materials such as aluminum and copper
 Ultrasonic Welding

Figure 31.29 Ultrasonic welding (USW): (a) general

setup for a lap joint; and (b) close‑up of weld area.
Explosion Welding

71
Thermit Welding (TW)
FW process in which heat for coalescence is
produced by superheated molten metal
from the chemical reaction of thermite
Thermite = mixture of Al and Fe3O4 fine
powders that produce an exothermic
reaction when ignited
Also used for incendiary bombs
Filler metal obtained from liquid metal
Process used for joining, but has more in
common with casting than welding
 Thermit Welding

Figure 31.25 Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2)

crucible tapped, superheated metal flows into mold; (3)
metal solidifies to produce weld joint.
 Other Welding Processes
High Energy Beam Welding
Electron Beam welding (EBW)
Heat is produced by high velocity
electron gun in a narrow beam
No filler material
High rate of heating results in
greater depth and heat-affected
zone is very small,heat generated is
about 2500C
Suitable for welding refractory
materials like: molybdenum and
zirconium
Requires a vacuum (limitation)
x-ray will be generated around the
welding gun which may be
cancerous
 GAS WELDING
 Gas welding is a fusion welding process

Flame produced by the combustion of gases is

employed to melt the metal

 The molten metal is allowed to flow together thus

forming a solid continuous joint upon cooling.

By burning pure oxygen in combination with other

gases, in special torches, a flame up to 33000C can be
attained.
Oxyfuel gas welding

76
 Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding Equipment

77
 Oxyacetylene Torch

The acetylene valve is opened first; the

gas is lit with a spark lighter or a pilot
light; then the oxygen valve is opened
and the flame adjusted.

Basic equipment used in oxyfuel-gas welding. To ensure correct

connections, all threads on acetylene fittings are left-handed,
whereas those for oxygen are right-handed. Oxygen regulators
are usually painted green, and acetylene regulators red.
 Oxyacetylene Gas Welding

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and

cutting operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or
reducing, flame. The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen
and acetylene. (d) The principle of the oxyfuel-gas welding operation.
 Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding Equipment

1. Welding torch & tip

2. An acetylene cylinder – 15.5 bar, red or maroon
3. An oxygen cylinder – 125 bar. Blue or black
4. Pressure regulator – Cylinder pressure to delivery
pressure
5. Pressure gauge- One shows cylinder pressure & the
other shows the working or delivery pressure
6. Rubber hoses - black/green hose for oxygen &
red/orange hose for acetylene
7. Safety devices – Goggle with coloured glasses, hand
gloves, helmet, apron, sleeves, shoes etc.

80
 The oxy-acetylene flame is used to pre heat the parts to
be welded around the joint and also to melt the filler
metal.

A jet of oxy acetylene flame issuing from the nozzle of a

burner is played on the junction of the two pieces to be
welded.

At the same time a filler rod is held in the zone of jet
and its melt is deposited on the fused junction.

A weld is obtained after the molten metal solidifies. The

coating on the filler rod acts as a flux to keep the joint
clean.
81
 GAS WELDING FLAMES (OXY-ACETYLENE FLAMES)
(Based on Gas Ratio)
1. Neutral Flame: (Gas ratio is 1)
Oxygen & acetylene are supplied to the torch in nearly equal
volumes
Maximum temperature of 32000C.
This neutral flame is desired for most welding operations.
Used for welding steel, stainless steel, cast iron, Cu etc.

82
2. Carburizing or Reducing Flame: ( Gas ratio 0.95 to 1)
Excess of acetylene is present, Low temp flame
The excess unburnt carbon is absorbed in ferrous metals,
making the weld hard and brittle.
An intermediate flame feather exists - reddish in colour.

The length of the flame feather is an indication of the excess

acetylene present.
Carbonizing flame is used for welding high carbon steels and
cast iron, alloy steel.

83
 2. Oxidizing Flame: (Gas ratio 1.15 to 1.5)
Excess of oxygen is present, similar to the neutral flame
Inner white cone is some what small, giving rise to higher tip
temperatures.
Excess of oxygen causes the metal to burn/oxidize quickly.
Desirable for welding only brass because a thin layer of slag
forms over the molten metal.
Widely used for oxyacetylene cutting and not suitable for
welding since the weld metal will be oxidised.

84
 Advantages of Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding

1.The equipment is inexpensive, simple and is easily

portable.

2.Useful for welding light metals such as automobile

bodies and repair works.

3.A large variety of material can be welded.

4.Welds can be produced at reasonable cost.

5.Compared to electric arc welding this provides greater

flexibility with respect to heat impact and cooling rates.
85
 Disadvantages of Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding

1. Equipment must always be handled carefully as in certain

circumstances acetylene is explosive as oxygen when used in
an oily atmosphere (such as an old dirty garage floor pit).
2. A high temperature flame from a hand held torch is
dangerous when handled carelessly.
3. It is much slower than electric arc welding and does not
concentrate the heat close to the weld. Thus, the heat treated
area is larger, which causes more distortion.
4. Highly skilled operators are required to produce a good
weld.
5. If electric arc welding is available gas welding is seldom
used for work over 3.2mm thick.
6. The process is not satisfactory for heavy sections
86
 WELDING DEFECTS

1. Cracking: Due to incorrect electrodes or wrong working

procedure, locked up stresses set up by non-uniform
heating & cooling, excess sulphur or phosphorous present
in the weld metal. Cracked welds must be cut out &
rewelded.
2. Incorrect edge preparation: Results in poor fusion, slag
inclusion, weak weld, overheating and build up of residual
stresses in the weld.
3. Craters: Concave depressions in the external surface of the
welded joints which reduces the strength of the joint.
4. Under cutting: Excess melting of the parent metal due to
the non-uniform feed of the welding rod, improper position
of the electrode etc.
87
 WELDING DEFECTS

5. Porosity: Formation of blowholes, gas pockets or roughness

on the weld surface due to the presence of gases in the weld
metal, moisture in the flux or rust on the welded edges.
6. Over welding: Welding over an already welded layer.
Results in overheating of the earlier layer of weld and also in
improper fusion.
7.Slag inclusions: It is the presence of non-metallic
substances in the weld. This is due to the contamination of
the base & deposited metal by oxides, non-uniform melting
of the electrode coating & high viscosity of the slag.
8. Poor Fusion: The lack of thorough & complete union
between the deposited & parent metal.

88
 UNDERCUT

• Thickness of one (or both) of the sheets is reduced at the toe of

the weld.
• This is due to incorrect settings / procedure.
 POROSITY

• This occurs when gases are trapped in the solidifying weld metal.
• These may arise from damp consumables or metal or, from dirt,
particularly oil or grease, on the metal in the vicinity of the weld.
 INCOMPLETE FUSION

• Lack of fusion results from too little heat input and / or too
rapid traverse of the welding torch (gas or electric).
OVERLAP
INCOMPLETE PENETRATION
&
EXCESSIVE PENETRATION
 WELDING-MERITS
1. Homogeneity and homogeneous properties.

2. Joints withstand elevated stresses.

3. Durable joints – unaltered due to environmental

changes or temperature changes.

4. leak-tightness

5. Portable equipment, cheap & economical process.

6. Less noisy operation compared to some of the

mechanical joining processes.
94
 WELDING-DEMERITS

1. Causes residual stresses & distortion of the workpiece.

2. Eyes of the operator get strained due to continuous
welding or due to light radiations emitted during
welding.
3. If the welding area is less ventilated or if the air
circulation is minimum, fumes that may come out can
be suffocating to the welders.
4. Requires edge preparation before welding.
5. Stress relieving is essential after welding.
6. Requires skilled operator for producing a neat job.

95
 WELDING-APPLICATIONS

1. In aircraft building industry.

2. Cylinders, boilers & vessel manufacturing.
3. Structural constructions like bridges, buildings, ships
etc.
4. Manufacture of various machineries like mechanical,
food processing, agricultural, earth moving & textile
machineries.
5. Building of automobile bodies and other parts.
6. Manufacturing of furnaces, tanks, cranes, hoists,
railway equipments, steel furniture etc.

96
 SOLDERING
Method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by the
application of heat and using a filler metal or fusible alloy
called solder, whose liquidus temperature is below 450 0 C

The molten filler metal is made to flow between the

two closely placed adjacent surfaces by the capillary
action.

Strength of the joint is limited by the strength of the

filler metal used.

Soldering is used for obtaining a leak proof joint or a

low resistance electrical joint.
97
 PCB – printed circuit boards
Solder Pads
Soldering

Top View

Side View

Circuit Board

Resistor
Soldering
Iron
Move soldering iron until tip is
touching wire & solder pad
Move solder to touch edge of tip.

Solder
 Hold until solder melts
on tip by wire

Solder
Move solder back to touch wire only

Solder
 Move solder in to form a
small pocket

Solder
Move soldering iron tip up. This
will drag solder up with it.

Solder
 Look for
shinny fillets
 The soldered joints are not suitable for high
temperature applications because of the low melting
temperatures of the filler metals used.

The purpose of using the flux is to prevent the

formation of oxides on the metal surface when the same
is heated.

The fluxes are available in the form of powder,

paste, liquid or in the form of core in the solder metal.

It is necessary that the flux should remain in the

liquid form at the soldering temperature and be reactive
10
to be of proper use
7
 The composition of solder used for different purposes
are as given below:

Soft solder - lead 37% tin 63%

Medium solder - lead 50% tin 50%
Plumber’s solder - lead 70% tin 30%
Electrician’s solder - lead 58% tin 42%

10
8
 SOFT SOLDERING
Used extensively in sheet metal work for joining parts
that are not exposed to the action of high temp & are not
subjected to excessive loads and forces or vibrations.

Also employed for joining wires and small parts. The

solder is mostly composed of lead and tin whose melting
temperature range is 150-350°C.

ZnCl2- commonly used flux- quick acting & produce

efficient joints. As they are corrosive,joint should
thoroughly cleaned of all the flux residue from the joint.

 A soldering iron is used to apply the heat produced

from the electrical source.
10
9
 HARD SOLDERING

 An alloy of copper, tin and silver known as hard

solder is used for stronger joints.

Hard soldering employs solder which melts at higher

temperatures ( 6000 C to 9000 C) is stronger than used in
soft soldering.

German silver, used as a hard solder for steel is an

alloy of copper, zinc and nickel.

11
0
 SOLDERING-MERITS

1. Simple method & less costlier.

2. Joints are easy to repair or rework.

3. Joint can last for many years.

4. Energy required for the process is less.

5. A high degree of control can be obtained over the

process by a skilled operator.

11
1
 BRAZING
Brazing is a process of making joints where in
coalescence is produced by heating to suitable temperatures
above 5000 C and by using a non-ferrous filler metal –
SPELTER- having a melting point (up to 900 0 C) below that
of the base metal

Filler metal being distributed between the closely

fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary action.

Both similar and dissimilar metals can be joined.

Brazing gives a much stronger joint than soldering.

11
2 Borax is the most widely used flux
 Spelter may be a silver based alloy or copper based
alloy

Copper base alloys – Brasses ( Cu & Zn), sometimes

with up to 20% tin are mostly used-melting range of
850°C-950°C - used for brazing ferrous metals.

Silver base alloys – (Ag & Cu or Ag, Cu & Zn) -

melting range of 600°C-850°C - clean finish & a strong
ductile joint.

Types of Brazing:
1.Torch Brazing
2.Furnace Brazing
11
3.Resistance Brazing
3 4.Immersion Brazing
 Brazing is a much widely used joining process in various
industries because of its many advantages.

Dissimilar metals, such as stainless steel to cast iron can

be joined by brazing.

Almost all metals can be joined by brazing except

aluminium and magnesium which cannot easily be joined
by brazing.

Because of the lower temperatures used there is less

distortion in brazed joints.

The brazed joints are reasonably stronger, depending on

11the strength of the filler metal used.
4
 Sl. WELDING SOLDERING BRAZING
No
1. High temperature Low temperature Temperature range is
operation & the base operation in which the higher than that of
metals are melted base metals are not soldering, but lower
melted than the welding
temperature. Base
metals are not melted.

2. Applicable for joining For joining both similar For joining both
similar metals only and dissimilar metals similar and dissimilar
metals

3. Filler material is of Solder is the filler Spelter is the filler

similar composition as material which is an alloy material which may
that of the parent metal of lead & tin ( soft solder) be either a copper
or an alloy of copper, tin base alloy or a silver
& silver (hard solder) base alloy
4. Electrode is coated by the Flux is applied on the Flux is applied on the
required flux materials surface to be soldered surface to be brazed
separately separately
11 05/22/2025 09:29:31 AM
5
 Sl. WELDING SOLDERING BRAZING
No
5. Joint is formed by the Joint is produced by the Joint is produced by
solidification of the molten formation of an the formation of an
filler metal with the intermetallic compound intermetallic
molten base metal between the metals & compound between the
filler material due to metals & filler material
diffusion or alloying due to diffusion or
process alloying process

6. Heat affected zone is large Heat affected zone is nil Heat affected zone is
negligible
7. Very stronger joint Joint formed is Less Joint formed is
stronger than welded or stronger than soldered
brazed joint joint, but weaker than
the welded joint

8. Used to join thick metals, Mainly to join thin sheet For non-structural
in the fabrication work, metals, pipes, wires etc. applications
structural constructions
etc.
11 05/22/2025 09:29:31 AM
6