Module 2.

2
Population Ecology: Gray Wolves Return to Yellowstone
Core Message
Population ecologists study
• population size, distribution, and
growth rate
• influenced by many factors, including
the availability of resources and the
presence of other species, like
predators
Many species are facing environmental
disturbances that threaten their
populations.
To help populations persist, we need to
understand how they function.
Case Study: Yellowstone Gray
Wolf Restoration Project
• Yellowstone wolf populations
declined
• Predator control
• Other human interference
• Protected under the
Endangered Species Act of
1973
• 1995: 41 wolves reintroduced
to Yellowstone; monitored
with radio tracking collars
since then
 I. What Is a Population, and
Why Do Ecologists Study Them?
Key Concept 1: Ecologists study populations to better understand what
makes them thrive, decline, or become overpopulated, in an effort to
manage them and the other populations they impact.
 Ecologists Study Populations
Key Terms

• Population: all the individuals of a species that live in the same

geographic area and are able to interact and interbreed

• Range: the geographic area where a species or one of its populations

can be found
IG 1: Geographic Range of the
Gray Wolf

Biologists continuously
monitor the range of the
Yellowstone wolves.
 II. What Population Distributions
Are Seen in Nature?
Key Concept 2: A population’s distribution within its range is influenced by
behavioral and ecological factors and is a reflection of how individuals interact
with each other and their environment.

Key Term
• Population distribution: the location and spacing of individuals within their
range
IG 2: Population Distribution Patterns
Clumped Distribution
Individuals are found in groups or patches within the habitat.
Random Distribution
Individuals are spread out over the environment irregularly, with no
discernible pattern.
Uniform Distribution
Individuals are spaced evenly, perhaps due to territorial behavior or
mechanisms.
 III. What Is the Importance of
Population Size and Density?

Key Concept 3: Populations require minimal sizes and densities to reproduce

successfully and maintain social ties, but high population density can lead to
problems such as disease and overuse of resources.
 IG 3: POPULATION SIZE AND DENSITY
INFLUENCE LONG-TERM POPULATION SUCCESS
Ecologists Monitor Population
Dynamics
Key Term
• Population dynamics: changes over time in population size and
composition

The size of a population is determined by factors that simultaneously

increase the number of individuals in a population (birth and immigration)
and those that decrease numbers (death and emigration).
How big does a population have
to be?
Key Term

• Minimum Viable Population: the smallest number of individuals that

would still allow a population to be able to persist or grow, ensuring
long-term survival

A population that is too small may fail due to:

• Unsuccessful flocking, schooling, or courtship
• Reduced genetic diversity
How many individuals can the
environment support?
Key Terms

• Carrying capacity: the maximum population size that a particular

environment can support indefinitely

• Population density: the number of individuals per unit area

IV: What Is Exponential Growth, and
When Does It Occur in a Population?

Key Concept 4: Growth

and resistance factors
influence population
growth. Exponential
growth occurs when
population growth is
unrestricted; however, it
will not continue
indefinitely.
Ecologists monitor population
growth
Key Terms

• Population growth rate: the change in population size over time that
takes into account the number of births and deaths as well as
immigration and emigration numbers

• Growth factors: resources individuals need to survive and reproduce

that allow a population to grow in number

• Resistance factors: things that directly (predators, disease) or

indirectly (competitors) reduce population size
Calculating annual population
growth
A simplified way to determine population growth rate utilizes a simple
census of a population at two points in time. The equation is:

change in the number ofi ndividuals from prior year

population growth  X 100
number ofi ndividuals counted in the prior year
N1  N
population growth  x 100
N
N = population size at time 1
N1 = population size at time 2
Population growth can be
positive, negative, or stable.
• In 2009, the elk population was 6070.
• In 2010 , it was 4635. The combination of births and deaths resulted in 1435 fewer elk
(deaths were higher than births).
annual growth rate = -1435/6070 × 100 = -0.24 or -24%
Predicting Future Population
Growth
• If the growth rate stays constant, the annual growth rate can be used
to predict future population sizes.
• In 1932, the elk population was 16,000. If growth in the previous
years was 5%, and we assume it is stable, then the population in 1933
would be
16,000 × 0.05 = 800
16,000 + 800 = 16,800
What if there are no resistance
factors?
Key Terms
• Biotic potential (r):
maximum rate at
which the
population can grow
due to births if each
member of the
population survives
and reproduces

Rats have high biotic potential.

Exponential growth
Key Terms
• Exponential growth: the kind of growth in which a population becomes
proportionally larger each breeding cycles; produces a J curve when plotted
over time
• Typically seen when a species first enters a new environment or there is an
influx of new resources
• Cannot be sustained indefinitely
 IG 4: Exponential
Growth Occurs When
There Are No Limits to
Growth

Enough resources that the population

grows quickly—nothing slows
population growth
Doubling time

Doubling time—use the “rule

of 70”
Without predation pressure from
70
wolves, elk numbers in
per capita growth rate Yellowstone doubled between
1914 and 1932.
births  deaths
r
original population size
Exponential growth is not
sustainable

• Resources become scarce.

• Individuals starve or are unable to find
habitat for reproduction.
• Disease, aggression, and competition
increase.
• There is increased pressure from
predation.
 V. What Is Logistic Growth, and
When Does It Occur in a
Population?
Key Concept 5: As a population’s size approaches carrying capacity,
exponential growth may transition to logistic growth, slowing
population growth rates.
Logistic growth
Key Terms
• Logistic growth: the kind of growth in which population size increased
rapidly at first but then slows down as the population becomes larger;
produces an S-shaped curve when plotted over time.
• Occurs when a population nears carrying capacity (K)
• The maximum sustainable population size
• Determined by limiting factors
 IG 5: Effect of Carrying Capacity
on Population Growth

Why is carrying capacity

higher for elk than wolves in
Yellowstone?
 VI. How Do Density-Dependent
and Density-Independent Factors
Affect Population Growth?
Key Concept 6: Some factors
that influence population size
have more of an impact when that
population is large (density-
dependent factors), whereas
others will have the same effect
on large and small populations
alike (density-independent
factors).
 IG 6: Density-
Dependent and
Density-
Independent
Factors Affect
Population Size
Ecologists analyze population growth
factors (1 of 2)

Key Term
• Density-dependent: factors,
such as predation and disease,
whose impact on a population
is influenced by the size of
that population
Ecologists analyze population
growth factors (2 of 2)

Key Term
• Density-independent:
factors, such as a storm
or avalanche, whose
impact on a population is
not related to population
size
Density-dependent regulation of
aspen trees in Yellowstone

The population of aspen

trees, a preferred food
source of elk and deer in
Yellowstone, is heavily
impacted by the size of
the herbivore
populations.
 VII: What Are the Life-History
Strategies of r- and K- Selected
Species, and How Do They Relate to
Population Growth Patterns and Their
Ability to Respond to Environmental
Changes?
Key Concept 7: The population size of r-selected species can increase or decrease
quickly if the environment changes. K-selected species’ populations don’t fluctuate as
widely, but they are less able to respond to environment changes.
 IG 7: Life-
History
Strategies

• Some species such as

deer and elk have both r
and K characteristics.
Life-history
strategies
These strategies classify a species based on biological characteristics
that influence how quickly a population can potentially increase in
number
Key Terms
• r-selected: species that have a high biotic potential and that share
other characteristics, such as short life span, early maturity, and
high fecundity
• K-selected: species that have a low biotic potential and that share
characteristics such as long life span, later maturity, and low
fecundity; generally show logistic population growth
 VIII: What Are Top-Down and Bottom-Up
Regulation, and How Do They Contribute to
Trophic Cascades?
Key Concept 8: Population size is
influenced by factors that decrease it
(top down) and factors that increase it
(bottom up), but which one has the
greatest impact varies from population
to population.

• Are the elk populations in Yellowstone

regulated by top-down or bottom-up
factors?
IG 8: Top-Down and Bottom-Up
Regulation
Population regulation (1 of 2)

Key Term
• Top-down regulation:
Population sizes in a
community are limited
primarily by predation from
organisms at the top of the
food chain.
EX: regulation of hares by lynx
Population regulation (2 of
2)

Key Term
• Bottom-up regulation:
Population sizes in a community
are limited primarily by
availability of resources that
enhance growth and survival of
organisms lower on the food
chain.
EX: regulation of lynx by hares
Regulation of elk populations in
Yellowstone
 Summary
• The success of the reintroduction program led to the wolf being
delisted in Montana and Idaho in 2011, and in Wyoming in 2017.

• The population dynamics of the Yellowstone wolves will continue to

monitored very closely.