Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Course Code:ECE1PM01A
Contents

Unit 3: Semiconductor Devices: PN Junction Diode

and its application as a Rectifiers, Zener diode and its
application as a voltage regulator, Bipolar Junction
Transistor (BJT): Working principle, operation,
configurations, Common Emitter VI characteristics,
Biasing circuits [8L]

2
Introduction to Semiconductor Material
• Two types of semiconducting materials Silicon and
Germanium are used in electronic devices
• Both have four valance electrons- tetravalent
• When Silicon and Germanium atoms combine into
molecules to form a solid material they arrange
themselves in fixed pattern called a crystal/lattice
• Atoms within the crystal structure are held together
by covalent bonds
• An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 3
Introduction to Semiconductor Material
• In an intrinsic semiconductor there are very few
free electrons
• Pure semiconductor materials are neither good
conductor nor good insulators
• Intrinsic semiconductor material must be modified
by increasing the free electrons and holes to
increase its conductivity and make it useful for
electronic devices
• By adding impurities, n-type and p-type extrinsic
semiconductor material can be produced

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 4
 Bohr diagrams of the silicon and copper atoms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 5
Silicon and Germanium atoms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 6
 Covalent bonds in silicon

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 7
Covalent bonds in a silicon crystal

21-Aug-21
An intrinsic Silicon crystal
MITWPU 8
Electron and Hole Current

Electron current in intrinsic

silicon is produced by the
movement of thermally
generated free electrons

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 9
 Modified Semiconductor material
• Doping is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconducting
materials to increase and control conductivity within the material

✔ N-type material is formed by adding pentavalent (5 valance

electrons) impurity atoms such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), and
antimony (Sb).
• electrons are called majority carriers in n-type material
• holes are called minority carrier in n-type material

✔ P-type material is formed by adding trivalent (3 valance electrons)

impurity atoms such as boron (B), indium (In), and gallium(Ga)
• holes are called majority carriers in n-type material
• electrons are called minority carrier in n-type material

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 10
N-type and P-type Semiconductors

N-Type Semiconductor P-Type

Semiconductor

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 11
 PN Junction
• A block of Si is doped with a trivalent impurity in half part and the other half part doped
with pentavalent impurity, a boundary called PN junction is formed.
✔ Yellow line shows PN junction
✔ Electrons near PN junction diffuses across the junction and combines with holes, a
positive charge is left in the n region and a negative charge is created in the p
region, forming a Depletion Region.
✔ Region near the pn junction is depleted of charge carriers (electrons and holes) due
to diffusion across the junction.
✔ Depletion region is formed very quickly and is very thin compared to the n region
and p region.
✔ This action continues until the voltage of the barrier repels further diffusion.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 12
 PN Junction
• Forces between the opposite charges form an electric field
(blue arrows)
• The potential difference of the electric field across the
depletion region is the amount of voltage required to move
electrons through the electric field.
• This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is
expressed in volts.
• To overcome the barrier potential, a certain amount of
voltage equal to the barrier potential and with the proper
polarity must be applied across a PN junction before
electrons will begin to flow across the junction.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 13
 Energy Diagrams of PN Junction
An energy diagram for a pn junction at the instant of formation
• Valence and conduction bands in the n region are at lower energy levels than those in
the p region (trivalent impurities exert lower forces on the outer shell electrons than the
pentavalent)
• Lower forces in P-type means, electron orbits are slightly larger hence have greater
energy than electrons in n-type.
• There is a significant amount of overlapping also.
• Free electrons in the n region occupy the upper part of the conduction band in terms of
their energy can easily diffuse across the junction (they do not have to gain additional
energy)
• These electrons temporarily become free electrons in the lower part of the p-region
conduction band.
• After crossing the junction, the electrons quickly lose energy and fall into the holes in the
p-region valence band as indicated in the figure

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 14
 The PN Junction Diode

• A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material, usually

silicon, in which half is doped as a p region and half is doped as an n
region with a pn junction and depletion region in between.

• Two terminal device: Anode and Cathode

Diode
Image

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 15
Forward Biased Diode Requirements

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 16
 Forward Biased Diode Requirements

• Rlimit – current limiting resistance, VBIAS – must be greater than

barrier potential
• Effect of Forward Bias : Depletion Region becomes narrow
• Effect of Barrier Potential During FB: Free electrons overcome
the barrier potential and give up an amount of energy
equivalent to barrier potential.
• Voltage drop across PN junction is for Si=0.7 V and Ge=0.3 V
• An additional small voltage drop occurs across p and n regions
due to internal resistance of the material (dynamic resistance)
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 17
The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion Region

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 Reverse Bias

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 19
 Reverse Bias

• The extremely small reverse current in a reverse-biased

diode is due to the minority carriers from thermally
generated electron-hole pairs.
• If the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value
called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will
drastically increase.
• The multiplication of conduction electrons is known as the
avalanche effect.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 20
V-I characteristics of a diode in Forward Bias

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 21
 V-I characteristics of a diode in Forward Bias
• Forward current (IF) - cathode to anode (flow of electrons).
• Conventional current flow (due to holes) - high potential to low potential
(opposite of IF).
• Forward voltage drop (VF) due to the barrier potential
• R limits forward current, so that overheating and damage of diode is
avoided.
• VBIAS= 0, IF = 0
• Gradual increase in VBIAS : IF and voltage across the diode VF start
increasing gradually
• A portion of forward-bias voltage is dropped across R
• VBIAS increased: VF = approximately 0.7 V (barrier potential), the forward
current begins to increase rapidly.
• Further increase in VBIAS : IF increases very rapidly, but the voltage across
the diode increases only gradually above 0.7 V.
• Voltage drop across diode is above 0.7 V due to the voltage drop across
the internal dynamic resistance of the semiconducting material.
• rd=ΔV
21-Aug-21 F
/ΔIF MITWPU 22
 V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias

• Extremely small reverse current (IR) flow through the

pn junction.
• VBIAS=0,IR=0
• Gradual increase in VBIAS - very small reverse
current flow and the voltage across the diode
increases.

• When VBIAS is increased: VR = breakdown value (VBR),

the reverse current increases rapidly.

• Further increase in VBIAS- current increases very

rapidly, but the voltage across the diode increases
very little above VBR.
• Breakdown, with exceptions, is not a normal mode of
operation for most pn junction devices.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 23
The Complete V-I Characteristic Curve of a diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 24
Diode Current Equation
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 25
 Applications of Diode
• Used as RECTIFIERS to convert AC to DC

Pls visit- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Bzt-FFvRgQ

• Rectifiers are found in all DC power supplies

• Diodes are used as switches in some applications

• Zener diodes are used as Voltage regulators

• Reverse Current Protection Circuits

• Voltage Multipliers

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 26
Regulated DC Power Supply
• Rectification- a process of converting AC voltage into the corresponding DC voltage
• DC power supply - one of the most commonly used circuit
• Voltage produced is used to power all types of electronic circuits i.e. consumer
electronics, computers, industrial controllers, and most laboratory instrumentation
systems and equipment
• The DC voltage level required depends on the application, but most applications
require relatively low voltages

230 V, 50 Hz

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 27
Building blocks of a DC power supply
✔ Step down Transformer
• Reduces the ac voltage to a tolerable level

✔ Rectifier
• Converts ac to pulsating dc

✔ Filter
• Converts rectifier output to steady
ripple-free voltage which is close to pure dc
(ac part is removed)

✔ Regulator
• Keeps the dc output constant even if the
input or load fluctuates.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 28
 Rectifier
• An electronic device used for converting AC voltage/current into a
unidirectional DC voltage/current.
• Diodes are used in rectifiers because of their ability to conduct
current in only one direction and block current in the other
direction.
• Rectifiers are used in several electronic devices we come across in
our daily life, eg. TV, Radio, PC, adaptors, mobile chargers etc.
• Rectifiers form the basis for electronic power supplies and battery
charging circuits.
• Energy Star program provides information on the energy
consumption of products and devices using different standardized
methods
• Power supplies to comply with the Energy Star requirements,
must have a minimum 80% efficiency rating for all rated power
output.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 29
Classification of Rectifiers

Rectifier
Circuits

Half Wave
Full Wave
Rectifier
Rectifier (FWR)
(HWR)
FWR with
center tapped
transformer

Full Wave
Bridge Rectifier

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 30
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit
HWR animation can be seen at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Bzt-FFvRgQ

• A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load resistor, RL, This forms a

half-wave rectifier.
• All ground symbols represent the same point electrically.
• Considering the diode as ideal diode, during +ve half cycle of the input
voltage , input voltage (Vin) goes positive, the diode is forward-biased and
conducts current through the load resistor.
• The current produces an output voltage across the load RL, which has the
same shape as the positive half-cycle of the input voltage.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 31
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit contd..

• When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of its cycle, the
diode is reverse-biased.
• There is no current, so the voltage across the load resistor is 0 V.
• The net result is that only the positive half-cycles of the ac input voltage
appear across the load.
• Output does not change polarity, hence it is a pulsating dc voltage.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 32
Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier Output

• During positive half-cycle, the input voltage must overcome the barrier potential
before the diode becomes forward-biased.
• This results in a half-wave output with a peak value that is 0.7 V less than the
peak value of the input.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 33
Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage
• Output voltage = value measured on a dc voltmeter.
• Mathematically, it is determined by finding the area under the
curve over a full cycle, as illustrated in Figure, then dividing by
the number of radians in a full cycle.
• Equation shows that VAVG is approx= 31.8% of Vp for a half-
wave rectified voltage.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 34
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

• PIV occurs at the peak of each half-cycle of the input voltage when the
diode is reverse-biased.
• Diode must be capable of withstanding this amount of repetitive reverse
voltage.
• PIV, occurs at the peak of each negative alternation of the input voltage
when the diode is reverse-biased.
• A diode should be rated at least 20% higher than the PIV.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 35
Half-wave Rectifier with Transformer coupled input
voltage.
Transformer coupling provides two advantages:
Allows the source voltage to be stepped down as needed.
Ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier, thus preventing a shock
hazard in the secondary circuit.
Fuse

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 36
Diode datasheet

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 37
Waveforms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 38
Operation of the circuit

Circuit during positive half cycle Circuit during negative half cycle

21-Aug-21 Animated working

MITWPU of HWR 39
Parameters of HWR
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 40
DC or Average Load Current (Idc)

mean value of the current (neglecting the reverse current) = Idc

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 41
RMS means: Squaring, Finding mean, & Finding Square root

Also called effective value of the load current

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 42
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 43
DC/Average and RMS Value Load Voltage
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 44
Rectifier efficiency for HWR
Rectifier efficiency is defined as the percentage of ac input power, actually
converted into the average load power.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 45
 Ripple Factor
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 46
TUF (Transformer Utilization Factor)
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 47
Advantages of HWR
• Simple construction, Small size
• Less number of components are required

Applications of HWR
• In the eliminators for pocket radios or eliminators for Walkman or
in the low cost power supplies.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 48
Disadvantages of HWR
• Ripple factor is high (1.21)
• Low rectification efficiency (40%)
• Low TUF(only 28%) which shows that transformer is not
utilized effectively.
• Low DC output voltage and current.
• Larger filter components are required.
• Because of these disadvantages HWR is not normally used in
practice.
• Possibility of core saturation due to unidirectional current
flow through transformer. To avoid this size of transformer
should be increased.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 49
Examples- Homework

1. What is the average value

of the half-wave rectified
voltage in Figure 2–21?

If Vp = 60 V, VAVG =?

2. Determine the peak value of the

output voltage for Figure if the
turns ratio is 0.5.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 50
Examples- Answers

1. What is the average value

of the half-wave rectified
voltage in Figure 2–21?

If Vp = 60 V, VAVG =?
VAVG=60/3.14=19.1 V

2. Determine the peak value of the

output voltage for Figure if the
turns ratio is 0.5.

Vsec=n x Vpri
=0.5 x 170 =85V

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 51
FWR- Full Wave Rectifiers
• FWR is the most commonly used rectifier type in dc power supplies.
• A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current through the
load during the entire input cycle.
• A half-wave rectifier allows current through the load only during one-half of
the cycle.
• The result of full-wave rectification is an output voltage with a frequency
twice the input frequency
• Two types of full-wave rectifiers are :
⮚ Center-tapped FWR
⮚ Full wave bridge rectifier.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 52
Full Wave Rectifiers

• The average value (value measured on a dc voltmeter) for a full-wave

rectified sinusoidal voltage is twice that of the half-wave
• VAVG is approximately 63.7% of Vp for a full-wave rectified voltage.

Centre-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Operation

• A centre-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses two
diodes connected to the secondary of a center-tapped transformer.
• The input voltage is coupled through the transformer to the center-
tapped secondary.
• Half of the total secondary voltage appears between the center tap and
each end of the secondary winding as shown.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 53
Full Wave Rectifiers
Center-tapped(CT) FWR

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 54
 Operation of CT FWR-
D1 ON

(a) During positive half-cycles, D1 is forward-biased and D2 is reverse-biased.

D2 ON
(b)During negative half-cycles, D2 is forward-biased and D1 is reverse-biased
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 55
 Effect of the Turns Ratio on the Output Voltage
• If the transformer’s turns
ratio is= 1
Vsec = Vpri

• Voltage across each half of

the secondary is equal to
Vpri /2

• To obtain an output voltage

with a peak equal to the input
peak (less the diode drop), a
step-up transformer with a
turns ratio of n = 2 must be
used.
• Vsec = 2Vpri
• Voltage across each half of
the secondary is equal to Vpri
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 56
 Full Wave Rectifiers
• In any case, the output voltage of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier is always
one-half of the total secondary voltage less the diode drop, no matter what the
turns ratio.

Center Tapped FWR with AC input source:

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 57
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
• Each diode in the full-wave rectifier is alternately
forward-biased and then reverse-biased.
• The maximum reverse voltage that each diode must
withstand is the peak secondary voltage Vp(sec).

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 58
 PIV in FWR (Center tapped)

multiplying each term by 2 and transposing,

By substitution, the peak inverse voltage across either diode in a full-wave center-tapped
rectifier is

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 59
DC or Average Load Current (Idc)

Mean value of the load current is

RMS value of the load current is

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 60
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 61
Full Wave Rectifier efficiency
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 62
EXAMPLE 3
(a) Draw the voltage waveforms across each half of the secondary winding and
across RL when a 100 V peak sine wave is applied to the primary winding in
Figure 2–36.

(b) What minimum PIV rating must the diodes have?

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 63
EXAMPLE 3- Answers

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 64
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 65
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 66
• Positive half-cycle of the
total secondary voltage:
D1 and D2 are forward-
biased.
• Neglecting the diode
drops, the secondary
voltage appears across the
load resistor.
• The same is true when D3
and D4 are forward-biased
during the negative half-
cycle.

• In FW bridge rectifier, two

diodes are always in series
with the load resistor during
both the positive and
negative half-cycles.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 67
 Peak Inverse Voltage(full wave bridge rectifier)
• Ideal Model: D1 and D2 are forward-
biased and examine the reverse
voltage across D3 and D4.
• D1 and D2 as shorts (ideal model),
• D3 and D4 have a peak inverse voltage
equal to the peak secondary voltage.
• Since the output voltage is ideally
equal to the secondary voltage
• PIV = Vp(out)

• Practical model : Including forward-

biased diode drops
• PIV = Vp(out) + 0.7
• PIV rating of the bridge diodes is less
than that required for the center-
tapped configuration.
• Neglecting diode drops, bridge
rectifier requires diodes with half the
PIV rating of those in a center-tapped
rectifier for the same output voltage.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 68
DC or Average Load Current (Idc) and RMS load current

Mean value of the load current is

RMS value of the load current is

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 69
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 70
Rectifier efficiency
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 71
EXAMPLE 4
• Determine the peak output voltage for the bridge rectifier in Figure.
Assuming the practical model, what PIV rating is required for the
diodes?
• The transformer is specified to have a 12 V rms secondary voltage for
the standard 120 V across the primary winding. What is the turns ratio
of transformer?

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 72
EXAMPLE 4- Answers

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 73
Comparison of Rectifier circuits
Paramete Centre tapped
Half-wave Bridge
rs Full-wave
No of Diodes 1 2 4
Rectifier
Efficiency
40.6% 81.2% 81.2%

Peak Inverse
VM 2VM VM
Voltage
Average / DC
load Current 2Im/π

2Vm/𝜋
Vdc (no load) Vm/𝜋 2Vm/𝜋

Output
Frequency
f 2f 2f

Transformer
Utilisation 0.287 0.693 0.812
Factor

4* (Im2 / 𝜋 2) * RL 4* (Im2 / 𝜋 2) * RL
Ripple Factor 1.21 0.48 0.48

Pdc (I m
2
/ 𝜋 ) * RL
2

(Im2/ 2) * (RL + Rs +
21-Aug-21 (I 2
/ 2) * (RL + Rs +
mMITWPU 74
Pac (Im2 / 4) * (RL + Rs + Rf ) 2Rf )
R)
Filters
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 75
Filters

Ripple factor , r = 1/ 2fCR√3

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 76
Half-Wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 77
Ripple Comparison

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 78
Full-Wave Center tap Rectifier Circuits

* We can also smooth the output by using a large capacitance.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 79
 Ripple Voltage

The period of a full-wave rectified

voltage is half that of a half-wave
rectified voltage. The output
frequency of a full-wave rectifier is
twice that of a half-wave rectifier.

Comparison of ripple voltages

for
half-wave and full-wave rectified
voltages with the same filter
capacitor and load and derived
from the same sinusoidal input
voltage.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 80
Ripple Factor

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 81
Problem- Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier with C filter

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 82
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 83
HW Problem Data
• FWR bridge with Filter capacitor
• Vin=230 V RMS, 50 Hz
• Transformer turns ratio=0.1
• Load Resistance, RL=1000 Ohms
• Filter Capacitor, C= 470 microFarad

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 84
Special Purpose Diode- Zener Diode

Symbol Image of a Zener diode

Outline
▪ Introduction of Zener Diode

▪ Construction of Zener Diode

▪ Working of Zener Diode

▪ Application of Zener Diode

▪ Numericals of Zener Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 86
 Introduction
• The zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that
differs from rectifier diodes because it is designed for
operation in the reverse-breakdown region. (Reverse
biased condition)
• The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a
specific voltage across it’s terminals within given
limits of line or load change.
• Typically it is used for providing a stable reference
voltage for use in regulated power supplies and other
equipment.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 87
Datasheet of Zener Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 88
Regulated output voltage from unregulated input voltage
using Zener diode 1N4740

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 89
Construction of Zener
• Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown.
Two types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode are
avalanche and Zener.
• The avalanche break down occurs in both rectifier and zener
diodes at a sufficiently high reverse voltage.
• Zener breakdown occurs in a Zener diode at low reverse
voltages.
• A Zener diode is heavily doped to reduced the breakdown
voltage. This causes a very thin depletion region at the
junction.
• The Zener diodes breakdown characteristics are determined
by the doping process during manufacturing

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 90
 Working of Zener Diode
This typical characteristic curve illustrates the operating range for a Zener
diode. Note that it’s forward characteristics is just like a normal diode.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 91
Breakdown Characteristics
Figure shows the reverse portion of a zener diode’s characteristic
curve. As the reverse voltage (VR) is increased, the reverse current (IR)
remains extremely small up to the “knee” of the curve. The reverse
current is also called the zener current, IZ. At this point, the breakdown
effect begins; the internal zener resistance, also called zener impedance
(ZZ), begins to decrease as reverse current increases rapidly.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 92
 Zener Breakdown

• Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown.

• Types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode: avalanche and zener.
• Avalanche Effect:
⮚ High reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority
electrons so that as they speed through the p region.
⮚ They collide with atoms with enough energy to knock valence
electrons out of orbit and into the conduction band.
⮚ The newly created conduction electrons are also high in energy and
repeat the process.
⮚ If one electron knocks only two others out of their valence orbit
during its travel through the p region, the numbers quickly multiply.
⮚ As these high-energy electrons go through the depletion region, they
have enough energy to go through the n region as conduction
electrons, rather than combining with holes
• The avalanche effect, occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a
sufficiently high reverse voltage.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 93
Zener Breakdown

• Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages.

• Near the zener breakdown voltage (VZ), the field is intense
enough to pull electrons from their valence bands and create
current.
• Zener Diodes with Vz < approx. 5 V operate predominately in
zener breakdown.
• Those with breakdown voltages greater than approximately 5 V
operate predominately in avalanche breakdown.
• Both types are called zener diodes
• Zeners are commercially available with breakdown voltages from
less than 1 V to more than 250 V with specified tolerances from
1% to 20%.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 94
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 95
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ZENER AND AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN
Sr. Zener Breakdown Avalanche breakdown
No.
1 This occurs at junction which being This occurs at junction which
heavily doped have narrow being lightly doped have wide depletion
depletion layer.
layer
2 This breakdown voltage sets a Here electric field is not strong
very strong electric field across enough to produce Zener breakdown.
this narrow layer.
3 Here electric field is very strong Here minority carriers collide with semi
to rupture the covalent bonds conductor atoms, which breaks the
thereby generating electron-hole covalent bonds and electron-hole pairs are
pairs. So even a small increase in generated. Newly generated charge
reverse voltage is capable of carriers are accelerated by the electric field
producing which results in more collision and
Large number of current carriers. generates avalanche of charge carriers.
This results in avalanche breakdown.
4 Zener diode exhibits negative temp. Avalanche diodes exhibits positive temp.
coefficient i.e. breakdown voltage coefficient i.e breakdown voltage increases
decreases as temperature with increase in temperature.
increases.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 96
Zener Diode Application:
Zener diode as Voltage Regulator

• The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in

series with the input voltage VS
• The zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse biased
condition.
• The stabilised output voltage is always selected to be the same as the breakdown
voltage VZ of the diode.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 97
Numerical on Zener Diode Impedance
A Zener diode exhibits a certain change in Vz for a certain change in lz on a portion of the linear
characteristic curve between IZK and IZM as illustrated in Figure. What is the Zener impedance Zz?

Zz= 50mV/5mA

= 10 Ohms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 98
 Example 1: Zener Regulator
• A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required to
be produced from a 12V DC power supply
input source. The maximum power
rating Pz of the zener diode is 2W.

Using the zener regulator circuit calculate:

a) The maximum current flowing through the
zener diode.

b) The value of the series resistor, Rs, with no

load

c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is

connected across the Zener diode.

d) The zener current Iz at full load

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 99
 Power dissipation in Zener diode, Pzmax=Izmax.Vz

(a) Iz =

Vin=Vs= VRS+VZ

(b)

(c)

(d)

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 100

101
Example 2

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 102

103
Homework Problem

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 104

Zener diode Summary
• A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased
condition.
• A voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener
diode to maintain a constant DC output voltage across the
load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in
the load current.
• The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting
resistor Rs connected in series with the input voltage Vs with
the zener diode connected in parallel with the load R L in this
reverse biased condition.
• The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be the
same as the breakdown voltage Vz of the diode.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 105

 Bipolar Junction Transistor- BJT

05/19/2025 MITWPU 106

 Introduction

⚫Bipolar transistors are one of the main

‘building-blocks’ in electronic systems
⚫They are used in both analog and digital circuits
⚫The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device
consisting of two n-type and one p-type layers of
material or two p-type and one n-type layers of
material.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 107

 Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)

• Bipolar junction transistors or BJTs includes two PN

junctions
• The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons
involve in the current flow.
• The BJT is analogous to a vacuum triode and is comparatively
smaller in size.
• It is used in amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as a switch in
digital circuit.
• It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other
modern communication system.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 108

 Basic models of BJT
npn
transistor
Diod
e

Diod
e

pnp
transistor
Diod
e

Diod
e

05/19/2025 MITWPU 109

NPN and PNP
B B

E N P N C E P N P C

NPN PNP

• The three sections of the transistor are Emitter, Base and Collector, shown
as E, B, and C, respectively.
• Emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge
carriers into the base.
• Base is lightly doped and very thin. It passes most of the injected charge
carriers from the emitter into the collector.
• Collector is moderately doped.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 110

Datasheet of transistor

05/19/2025 MITWPU 111

 Physical Structure PNP transistor

05/19/2025 MITWPU 112

NPN vs PNP

• NPN and PNP BJTs function the same way

• Power supply polarities are reversed
• Current direction is reversed
• NPN is more widely used

05/19/2025 MITWPU 113

Transistor biasing NPN Transistor biasing

NPN Transistor •PNP Transistor biasing

biasing
• The figure shows, usually the emitter-
base junction is forward biased and
collector-base junction is reverse
biased.
• Due to the forward bias on the emitter-
base junction, an emitter current flows
through the base into the collector.
• Through the collector-base junction is
reverse biased, almost the entire emitter
PNP Transistor biasing
current flows through the collector
circuit.
05/19/2025 MITWPU 114
Transistor biasing in different region of
operation:
Sr. Region of Base emitter Collector base application
No. operation junction junction

1 Cutoff region Reverse biased Reverse

biased

2 Saturation Forward biased Forward biased

region

3 Active region Forward biased Reverse Amplifier

biased

05/19/2025 MITWPU 115

Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)

Junction Junction
EB CB

+ - - - - +
Emitter + - - - - + collec
+ - - P - - +
N tor
N
+ - - - - +
+ - - - - +

R Deplet Deplet R
E ion ion C
region region
+ +
Bas
VE e VC
E C
05/19/2025 MITWPU 116
Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)
Junction Junction
Electrons
JEB Holes JCB

- - +
- - +
Emitter collector
- - +
P N
- - +
- - +

RE Base electron
current

- + - +
Base
This constitutes the base current IB
Emitter electron Thus base current flows due to the VCC
current
05/19/2025 VEE RecombinationMITWPU
of electrons and holes 117
Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)
Junction Junction
Electrons
JEB Holes JCB

- - +
- - +
Emitter collector
- - +
P N
- - +
- - +

Collector electron
RE Base electron
current
current

- + - +
Base

Emitter electron VCC

current
05/19/2025 VEE MITWPU 118
Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)
Junction Junction IE = IC + IB
JEB JCB

Emitter collector
N P N

Electron emitted
Electron collected

RC
RE Direction
Direction Conventional Direction
Conventional Current IB Conventional
Current IE Current IC
- + - +
Base

Emitter electron
current
05/19/2025 VEE MITWPU VCC 119
Transistor operation in the active region (PNP)
Junction Junction
JEB JCB

P N P

Emitter collector
N P

holes emitted
holes collected

RE RC
conventional
current
-
+ + -
Base

Conventional
current VEE VCC
05/19/2025
IE = IC + IB
MITWPU 120
Transistor currents:
• As discussed earlier, the electrons injected from emitter into
base constitute the emitter current (IE).

• Out of these electrons very few will combine with the holes in
the thin base region to constitute the base current (I B).

• The remaining electrons pass through to the collector region

and then to the positive end of Vcc to constitute the collector
current (IC).

05/19/2025 MITWPU 121

 C
Collector
Transistor currents:
• Therefore we can write that IC

IE = IC + IB IB

B
Base
IE
E
Emitter
• Emitter current is always equal to the sum of collector current and
base current.
• As IB is very small as compared to IE we can assume the collector
current to be nearly equal to the emitter current

IE ≈ I C

05/19/2025 MITWPU 122

Circuit symbols and Transistor Terminal Voltages

IC C

N IC

IB +
JC VCE
P
B +
B IB -
JE
VBE
N
- IE
IE E

E N-P-N Transistor
05/19/2025 MITWPU 123
Circuit symbols and conventions of Transistor

IC C

P
IC
-
IB
JC VCE
N
B -
B IB +
JE
VBE
P + IE
IE E
P-N-P Transistor
E

05/19/2025 MITWPU 124

Transistor Working

• https://youtu.be/7ukDKVHnac4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jKVPEIMybUg

05/19/2025 MITWPU 125

 Transistor configurations:
• Transistor is 3 terminal device, hence one of the three terminals “common”
to input and output port.
• Depending on which terminal is made common to input and output port,
there are three possible configurations of transistor, they are as follows:
1. Common Base(CB) configuration
2. Common Emitter(CE) configuration
3. Common Collector(CC) configuration
CE CB CC

05/19/2025 MITWPU 126

 Common-Emitter Configuration

⚫ It is called common-emitter configuration since :

- emitter is common or reference to both input and output terminals.
- emitter is usually the terminal closest to or at ground
potential.
⚫ CE configuration is used in amplifier circuits it provides the
high gain for current and voltage.
⚫ Two sets of characteristics are necessary to describe the
behavior for CE; input (base terminal) and output (collector
terminal) parameters.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 127

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

Current gain (βdc): βdc = IC / IB

• In CE configuration, emitter acts as common terminal between input and output
ports.
• The bias voltage VBB is applied between base and emitter while bias voltage
VCC is applied between collector and emitter.
05/19/2025 MITWPU 128
 • Current relations:
For CE configuration, Collector current is given by

IC = βdc IB + ICEO

Current amplification factor or current gain (βdc):

The current amplification factor is the ratio of collector current to the
base current

⚫ Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE :

1. Input characteristics (base terminal)
2. Output characteristics (collector terminal).
05/19/2025 MITWPU 129
 Common Base Configuration

⚫ In this configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the

output terminal and base is the common terminal.

⚫ The input is applied between the emitter and base terminals.

⚫ The output is taken between the collector and base terminals.

⚫ Used as current buffer as current gain is approximately one.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 130

Common-Base (CB) Configuration

a) NPN transistor b) PNP transistor

Current amplification factor (αdc): αdc = IC / IE

05/19/2025 MITWPU 131

• In CB configuration, base acts as common terminal between the input and
output ports.
• The input voltage VEB is applied between emitter and base while output
voltage VCB is taken between collector and base.

Current relations:
The output current IC is given by
IC = IC(INJ) + ICBO
where IC(INJ) = injected collector current
and ICBO = reverse saturation current of CB junction
As ICBO flows due to minority carriers, it is negligible as compared to I C(INJ),
∴ IC ≈ IC(INJ)
05/19/2025 MITWPU 132
 Common – Collector Configuration

• Also called emitter-follower (EF)

• It is called common-collector configuration since both the signal
source and the load share the collector terminal as a common
connection point.
• The input is applied between the base and collector terminals.
• The output voltage is obtained at emitter terminal.
• It is used primarily for impedance-matching purpose since it has
high input impedance and low output impedance.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 133

 Common – Collector Configuration

Current amplification factor (Ƴdc): Ƴdc = IE / IB

05/19/2025 MITWPU 134

 Comparison of BJT circuit configurations
Sr. Parameter CB CE CC
No.
1. Input current IE IB IB
2. Output current IC IC IE
3. Current gain Less than 1 Medium Medium
αdc = IC / IE βdc = IC / IB γdc = IE / IB
4. Input voltage VEB VBE VBC
5. Output voltage VCB VCE VBC
6. Voltage gain Medium Medium Less than 1
7. Input resistance Very low (20 Ω) Moderate (1kΩ) High (500 kΩ)
8. Output resistance Very high (1MΩ) High (40 KΩ) Low (50 Ω)
9. Phase shift between 0⁰ 180⁰ 0⁰
input and output

10. Applications As preamplifier Audio amplifier For impedance

matching

05/19/2025 MITWPU 135

BJT Circuit Analysis
IB: dc base current

IE: dc emitter current

IC: dc collector current

VBE: dc voltage at base with respect

to emitter

VCB: dc voltage at collector with

respect to base

VCE: dc voltage at collector with

respect to emitter

05/19/2025 MITWPU 136

Input Characteristics

05/19/2025 MITWPU 137

•

05/19/2025 MITWPU 138

Numerical 1: DC biasing of CE configuration
Determine I , I , I , V , V , and V in the circuit shown
B C E BE CE CB

below. The transistor has a β = 150. DC

05/19/2025 MITWPU 139

Numerical 1 Solution

05/19/2025 MITWPU 140

Collector Characteristic – Output
Characteristics

05/19/2025 MITWPU 141

Collector Characteristic Curve
For IB
constant

05/19/2025 MITWPU 142

Family of Collector Characteristic Curves

05/19/2025 MITWPU 143

Transistor biasing in different region of
operation:
Sr. Region of Base emitter Collector base Application
No. operation junction junction

1 Cutoff region Reverse biased Reverse Switch

biased

2 Saturation Forward biased Forward biased Switch

region

3 Active region Forward biased Reverse Amplifier

biased

05/19/2025 MITWPU 144

Cutoff region

05/19/2025 MITWPU 145

Saturation region

05/19/2025 MITWPU 146

DC Load Line

05/19/2025 MITWPU 147

 Numerical 2
Determine whether or not the transistor in Figure is in saturation.
Assume VCE(sat) = 0.2 V.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 148

 Numerical 2 Solution

This shows that with the specified betaDC, this base current is
capable of producing an IC greater than IC(sat). Therefore, the
transistor is saturated, and the collector current value of
11.5 mA is never reached. If you further increase IB, the
collector current remains at its saturation value of 9.8 mA.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 149

Homework problem
• Determine whether or not the transistor in Figure 4–16 is
saturated for the following values:
beta DC =125, VBB =1.5 V, RB =6.8 kohms,
RC =180ohms, and VCC= 12 V.

Answer: Transistor is not in saturation

05/19/2025 MITWPU 150

Numerical 3

• A base current of 50 µA is applied to the transistor in Figure,

and a voltage of 5 V is dropped across RC. Determine the βDC
of the transistor.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 151

Numerical 3 Solution
IC = VC / RC
= 5V / 1 KΩ
= 5 mA

βDC = IC / I B
= 5 mA / 50 µA
= 100

05/19/2025 MITWPU 152

Numerical 4
• Determine each current in Figure below. What is the βDC?

05/19/2025 MITWPU 153

Numerical 4 Solution
•

05/19/2025 MITWPU 154

Numerical 5
• Assume that the transistor in the circuit below is having a βDC of 200.
Determine IB, IC, IE, and VCE given that VCC = 10 V and VBB = 3 V.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 155

Quiz 1
1. Name the two types of BJTs according to their structure.

2. The BJT is a three-terminal device. Name the three terminals.

3. What separates the three regions in a BJT?

05/19/2025 MITWPU 156

Quiz 1

• The power gain of -------- configuration is the highest.

Ans - CE

• Voltage gain of -------------configuration is unity.

Ans - CC
• Current gain of -------------configuration is low;

Ans - CB

05/19/2025 MITWPU 157

DC Bias
Bias establishes the dc operating point or Q-point (Quiescent point ) for proper
linear operation of an amplifier.

FIGURE : Examples of linear and nonlinear operation of an inverting amplifier

(the triangle symbol).

05/19/2025 MITWPU 158

Quiescent point (Q point) or bias point or operating
point of CE amplifier:
 It is the point on the load line which represents the dc current
through a transistor (ICQ) and the voltage across it (VCEQ), when no
ac signal is applied.

 The dc load line is a set of infinite number of such operating points.

 If the transistor is being used for “amplification” purpose, then Q

point should be exactly at the center of load line.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 159

 Instability of Quiescent point

• Due to Temperature
• Due to gain βdc
• Device to device variation
• The operating point of a transistor amplifier shifts mainly with
changes in temperature, since the transistor parameters — β,
ICO and VBE (where the symbols carry their usual meaning)—
are functions of temperature.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 160

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
We assign three values to IB and observe what happens to IC and VCE.

FIGURE : A dc-biased transistor circuit with variable bias voltage (VBB) for
generating the collector characteristic curves shown in part (b).

05/19/2025 MITWPU 161

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
First, VBB is adjusted to produce an IB of 200µA.
Since IC= βDCIB the collector current is 20 mA, as indicated, and

This Q-point is shown on the graph as Q1.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 162

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
Next, VBB is increased to produce an IB of 300µA and an IC of 30
mA.

The Q-point for this condition is indicated by Q2 on the graph.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 163

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
Finally, VBB is increased to give an IB of 400µA and an IC of 40
mA.

Q3 is the corresponding Q-point on the graph.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 164

DC Bias: DC Load Line

The point at which the load line intersects a characteristic curve

represents the Q-point for that particular value of I B.
05/19/2025 MITWPU 165
DC Bias: DC Load Line
Apply KVL to collector circuit to write,
VCC – VCE – IC RC = 0

Rearranging this equation we get,

IC = [-1 / RC] VCE + VCC/RC

Compare this equation with the general equation

of a straight line,
y = mx + C

From above equations

y = IC x = VCE
slope, m = -1/ RC C = VCC / RC

05/19/2025 MITWPU 166

A generic dc load line

Y -Intercept

05/19/2025 MITWPU 167

Linear Operation
The region along the load line including all points between saturation and cutoff
is generally known as the linear region of the transistor’s operation.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 168

Waveform Distortion due to improper biasing

05/19/2025 MITWPU 169

Waveform Distortion due to improper biasing

05/19/2025 MITWPU 170

Waveform Distortion- Input signal too large

05/19/2025 MITWPU 171

Numerical 6
•

05/19/2025 MITWPU 172

05/19/2025 MITWPU 173
05/19/2025 MITWPU 174
 Quiz 2

Question:
If a transistor operates at the middle of the dc load line, a decrease in
the base current will move the Q point ___________

A. off the load line

B. nowhere
C. Up
D. Down

Answer:D

05/19/2025 MITWPU 175

 Quiz 2

Question:
The end points of a DC load line drawn on a family of output curves
determine__________

A. saturation and cutoff

B. the operating point
C. the power curve
D. the amplification factor
Answer: A

05/19/2025 MITWPU 176

Quiz 2

Question 3
What are the upper and lower limits on a dc load line in terms of
VCE and IC?
1 IC=0, VCE=0
2 IC=IC sat, VCE=0 and IC=0, VCE=VCC
3 IC=0, VCE=VCC and IC=IC sat, VCE=0
4 IC=0,VCE=VCC

05/19/2025 MITWPU 177

DC Biasing and Q point

•Voltage-divider bias circuits

Voltage-divider bias is widely used because reasonably good
bias stability is achieved with a single supply voltage.
•Base-bias circuits
•Emitter-bias circuits
•Collector-feedback bias circuits
•Emitter-feedback bias circuits

05/19/2025 MITWPU 178

Voltage Divider Bias
•

05/19/2025 MITWPU 179

Voltage Divider Bias
Once we know the base voltage, we can find the voltages and currents in
the circuit, as follows:

05/19/2025 MITWPU 180

Stabilization of Q point by voltage divider bias circuit:
If IC increases due to change in temperature or βdc

Then IE increases

Hence drop across RE increases (VE = IE RE)

But VB is constant. Hence VBE decreases.

Hence IB decreases.

Hence IC also decreases. Thus compensation

for increase in IC is achieved.
05/19/2025 MITWPU 181
 Stabilization of Q point by voltage divider bias circuit

⚫ This is the most commonly used arrangement for biasing as it

provide good bias stability.
⚫ The stability of the base bias network and therefore the Q-
point is generally assessed by considering the collector current
as a function of both Beta (β) and temperature.
⚫ In this arrangement the emitter resistance ‘RE’ provides
stabilization.
⚫ The net forward bias across the emitter base junction is equal
to VB- dc voltage drop across ‘RE’.
⚫ The base voltage is set by Vcc and R1 and R2. The dc bias circuit
is independent of transistor current gain.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 182

Numerical 1
•

05/19/2025 MITWPU 183

05/19/2025 MITWPU 184
 Numerical 2
A silicon transistor connected in common emitter configuration with
voltage divider bias is shown in figure.
If Vcc=22.5V, Rc= 5.6KΩ, R1=90 KΩ, R2= 10 KΩ ,RE= 1 KΩ and β=55.
Find Q point.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 185

05/19/2025 MITWPU 186
 Numerical 3
Analyze the following circuit to find out D.C. parameters ICQ, VCEQ,
Assume VBE =0.6V.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 187

05/19/2025 MITWPU 188
 Numerical 4
A silicon transistor connected in common emitter configuration
with self bias is shown in figure.
Vcc=16V, Rc= 1.5KΩ, β=55
The quiescent point is chosen to be VCE= 8V, IC = 4mA.
Find R1,R2, RE.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 189

 8 =16 - 4mA ×(1.5K+RE ) Use VCE=VCC-IC(RE+ Rc)

RE = 0.5K=500Ω

VE = 0.5K×4mA=2V

VB = VE + VBE = 2.7V

VB= (R2/ R1+R2)×Vcc

Let R2= 1K Assumed value

So R1 = 4.92K

Nearest standard value for R1: 5.1K

05/19/2025 MITWPU 190
 Transistor as an Amplifier

• One of the primary uses of a transistor is to

amplify ac signals.
• DC load line -Active region operation
• This could be an audio signal (upto 20 KHz) or
perhaps some high frequency radio (MHz-GHz)
signal.
• No distortion in the amplified output

05/19/2025 MITWPU 191

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

• The region between cutoff and saturation is called

the linear region.
• A transistor which operates in the linear region is
called a linear amplifier.
• Only the ac component reaches the load because of
the capacitive coupling and that the output is 180º
out of phase with input.
• CE amplifiers exhibit high voltage gain and high
current gain and hence power gain.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 192

 The Common-Emitter Amplifier
• A linear amplifier provides amplification of a signal without any distortion so
that the output signal is an exact amplified replica of the input signal.
• A transistor always produces a phase inversion between the base voltage and
the collector voltage

(6.8/22+6.8)12=2.83V

05/19/2025 MITWPU 193

CE amplifier Circuit Components and their
Functions:
1. Resistors:
 Resistors R1, R2 and RE are used to bias the transistor in
active region by using voltage divider bias circuit.
 RC is collector resistor used to control collector current.
2. Input coupling capacitor C1:
 The input coupling capacitor C1 is used to couple the ac input
voltage VS to the base of the transistor.
 As capacitor block dc voltage , C1 couples only the ac
component of the input signal.
 This capacitor also ensures that the dc biasing conditions of
transistor remain unchanged even after applications of the
input signal.
05/19/2025 MITWPU 194
3. Bypass capacitor CE:
 As CE is connected in parallel with RE is called emitter bypass
capacitor CE.
 This capacitor offer a low reactance to the amplified ac signal,
therefore RE gets bypassed through CE for only the ac signals.
 This will increase the voltage gain of the amplifier.

4. Output coupling capacitor C2:

 This capacitor couples the amplifier output to the load or to the
next stage amplifier.
 It is used for blocking the dc part and passing only the ac part of
the amplified signal to the load.
05/19/2025 MITWPU 195
Phase Inversion in CE amplifier

05/19/2025 MITWPU 196

 AC Q Point

Graphical ac load line operation of the amplifier showing the variation of the base
current, collector current, and collector-to-emitter voltage about their dc Q-point
values. Ib and Ic are on different scales.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 197

The Common-Emitter Amplifier
• Common-emitter amplifier with voltage-divider bias and coupling
capacitors C1 and C3 on the input and output and a bypass capacitor, C2,
from emitter to ground.
• The input signal, Vin, is capacitively coupled to the base terminal, the
output signal, Vout, is capacitively coupled from the collector to the load.
• The amplified output is 180° out of phase with the input.
• Because the ac signal is applied to the base terminal as the input and
taken from the collector terminal as the output, the emitter is common to
both the input and output signals.
• There is no AC signal at the emitter because the bypass capacitor
effectively shorts the emitter to ground at the signal frequency.
• All amplifiers have a combination of both ac and dc operation, which
must be considered, but the common-emitter amplifier designation refers
to the ac operation.

05/19/2025 MITWPU 198

 Thank You !

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 199