RA 11131

• AN ACT REGULATING THE PRACTICE OF CRIMINOLOGY

PROFESSION IN THE PHILIPPINES, AND APPROPRIATING
FUNDS THEREFOR, REPEALING FOR THE
PURPOSE REPUBLIC ACT NO. 6506, OTHERWISE KNOWN
AS "AN ACT CREATING THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS FOR
CRIM1NOLOGISTS IN THE PHILIPPINES"
• SEC. 17. Rating in the Licensure Examination. To pass the licensure
examination for criminologist, a candidate must obtain a weighted average
rating of seventy-five percent (75%) with no grade less than sixty percent
(60%) in any given subject. In case the examinee obtains a weighted
average rating of seventy-five percent (75%) but, has a grade below sixty
percent (60%) in any of the subjects, the result of the examinee shall be
deferred, and be required to retake that particular subject/s. The deferred
examinee shall only be allowed to retake once within two (2) years from
the date of the examination, and shall be required to obtain a grade not
lower than eighty percent (80%) on the subject, to be considered to have
passed the licensure examination. If the examinee failed to retake after
the lapse of two (2) years or failed to get the passing mark of eighty
percent (80%), the examinee shall retake all the board subjects.
INTRODUCTION
TO
CRIMINOLOGY
Prepared By: Elsa J. Mahilum Rcrim.
• Chapter one
This chapter will introduce the student to the basic concept of the study of criminology, its nature, and the most important
areas of interest.

B. Scope:
[Link] is criminology ?
[Link] of the word criminology
3. Principal division of criminology
4. Nature of criminology
5. Major perspective of criminology
6. Brief history of criminology
7. Research enterprises
8. Choice of criminological research methods
[Link] and Quantitative Research Method
10. Ethics of criminological Research
11. Review Question
What is Criminology
Basic definition
It is the study of crime

definition by Walsh 2012 –

An interdisciplinary science that gathers and anlyzes data on various aspect of
crime and criminal behavior .

definition by Edwind sutherland

It is a body of knowlge regarding to crime as social phenomenon, it includes with
in the scope of making laws, breaking laws and reaction of the society towards
breaking the law .
The following Question are focused
on the study of criminology :

• 1 why do crime rate vary from time to time and culture to culture?
• 2. why are some individual more prone to committing crime than others ?
• 3. why do crime rates vary across different ages, genders and racial/ ethnic
groups
• 4. why are some harmful acts criminalized and not others
• [Link] can we do to prevent crimes
Through scientific study of crime and criminal behaviour, criminologist use the
scientific method to try to answer the question enumerated above, rather
than philosophizing about them.
 Criminology also defined by Edwin Sutherland
As a body of knowledge regarding to crime as social phenomenon it
Includes within the scope of making laws, breaking of laws and reaction of
the society towards breaking of law and reacting towards breaking of law.
HE IS ALSO REGARDED TO BE THE DEAN Of MODERN CRIMINOLOGY
Sutherlands definition includes some of the important areas of
criminologists :

*Crime as a social phenomenon – most believe that social factor is the are
the root causes of crime , even the most disturbed people are influenced by
their environment and their social interaction.
• The process of making laws- Sutherland definition recognize the association
between crime and the criminal law and show how the law defines crime.

• Breaking of laws- at its core, the purpose of criminology is to understand

between the onset of the crime and the most effective method for it to reduce

• Development of a body of general and verified

principles. Sutherland recognize that criminology is a
social science and criminologists must use the scientific
method when conducting research. Criminologists are
required to employ valid and reliable experimental
designs and sophisticated data analysis techniques or
else lose standing in the academic community.
Origin of the word criminology

ORIGIN OF TE WORD CRIMINOLOGY

Criminology came from latin and Greek word “CRIMEN AND LOGIA
CRIMEN- a latin term which means a crime or offense
LOGIA – a Greek word which means to study

So basically the word criminology means that it is the study of crime .

ORIGIN OF THE WORD
CRIMINOLOLGY
• The ITALIAN term criminology was coined in 1885 by RAFAEL
GAROFALO as
“ CRIMILOGIA”
The FRENCH term was coined by Paul Topinard as “
CRIMINOLOGIE” in 1889
The ENGLISH term was coined by EDWIND SUTHERLAND AS “
CRIMINOLOGY”
 ORIGIN OF THE WORD
CRIMINOLOLGY
.

The study of criminology as the scientific study of criminals and criminal

behaviour extends to three basic lines
• Investigation of the nature of crimes and criminal law
• Analysis of the causes of crimes and the behaviour of criminals
• Study of the control of crimes and the rehabilitation of the offender
Principle Division of Criminology

The study of criminology divided in to three , namely:

*sociology of law
*Criminal etiology
*Penology
Sociology of law

• SOCIOLOGY OF LAW
•Attempts at a scientific analysis of the
condition under which penal laws /
criminal laws develop as a process of
formal social control
CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY

-Attempts at the analysis of the causes of

crime
Answers the question “ why people commits
crime”
Penology
• Concerned with the control and prevention
of crime and the treatment of the offenders.

How people will be treated after committing a crime?

an ancient test of guilt or innocence by subjection of
the accused to severe pain, survival of which was taken
as divine proof of innocence.
Meanwhile, the nature of the criminology is presented below
for a better understanding

*APPLIED SCIENCE
*SOCIAL SCIENCE
*DYNAMICS
*NATIONALISTIC
Applied science- criminology is an applied science because it uses various of
sciences such as :
• Anthropology
• Psychology
• Sociology
• Law
• Criminalistics

SOCIAL SCIENCE -AS MUCH AS CRIME IS A SOCIAL CREATION THAT EXIST IN

SOCIETY BEING A SOCIAL PHENOMENON ITS STUDY MUST BE CONSIDERED AS
PART OF SOCIAL SCIENCE .
IT IS DYNAMIC – CRIMINOLOGY CHANGES AS
SOCIAL CONDITION CHANGES

NATIONALISTIC – STUDY OF CRIME MUST BE

IN CONNECTION WITH THE EXISTING
CRIMINAL LAW WITHIN A TERRITORY IR
COUNTRY
Major perspective of criminology
Classical choice perspective – situtational forces crime is a function of
freewill and personal choice . Punishment id a deterrent to the crime.

Biological/psychological Perspective – internal force crime is a function

of chemical, neuorological, genetics , personal intelligence or mental
traits .

Structural perspective – ecological forces crime is a function of

neigborhood condition, cultural forces and norm conflict
• Process perspective – socialization forces crime is a function of
upbringing , learning and control peers, parents, and teachers influence
behaviour.

• Conflict perspective – economic and political forces crime is function of

competion for limited resources and power. Class conflict produces cime

• Development perspective – Multiple forces biological, socio-

psychological,economic and political forces may combine to produce
crime .
Since criminologist have been trained in diverse field , several subareas
reflecting different orientations and perspective are now contained within the
broader arena of criminology. Taken together this subareas make up the
criminological enterprises that helps criminologist in their quest to understand
the criminal mind and subsequently the develop[e criminal behaviour among
criminals

This criminological enterprise is composed of the following sub-area :

*Criminal statistics – gathering valuid crime data devising new research

methods measuring crime patterns and trends.

*Sociology – determining the origin of law measuring the forces that can
change laws and society .
*Theory construction- predicting individual behaviour understanding
the causes of crime rates and trends

*Criminal behaviour system – determining nature and causes of

specific crime patterns studying theft organized white-collar , and
public order crimes

• Penology – studying the correction and control of criminal behaviour

creating effective policies on developing methods of social control

• Victimology – studying the nature and cause of victimization

identifying the critical role of the victim in the criminal process.
BRIEF HISTORY OF CRIMINOLOGY

DEMONOLOGICAL EXPLANATION

prior to 18th century During the Middle Ages, superstition and fear of satanic possession dominated the
thinking
regarding crime. People who violated social norms or religious practices were believed to be witches or
possessed by demons. The prescribed method for dealing with the possessed was burning at the stake, a
practice that survived into the 17th century.

demonological theory begins to fade during the age of enlightenment

Enlightenment theorists like Thomas Hobbes, Rousseau, Locke, Voltaire and Montesquieu introduced
the idea of social contract. Social Contract is an extraordinary important part of the
enlightenment philosophy that people invest in the laws of their society, with the guarantee that they will
be protected from others who violate such rules. The other concepts of this philosophy are the following
(Tibbets & Hemmens, 2010):
1. Democracy, which emphasizes that every person in society should have a say in government.
2. Individual’s right to the pursuit of life, liberty and happiness.
3. Human beings are rational and therefore have freewill.
 Criminology as a discipline has evolved into
three phases
BEGAN ON 18TH CENTURY
The writings of Cesare Bonesana Marchese di Beccaria (Father of Classical Criminology) and his
followers form the core of classical criminology. As originally conceived in the 18th century, the
classical criminology theory has the following basic elements:
1. In every society, people have freewill to choose criminal or lawful solutions to meet their
needs or settle their problems.
2. Criminal solutions may be more attractive than lawful ones because they usually require less
work for a greater payoff.
3. People’s choice of criminal solutions may be controlled by their fear of punishment.
4. The more severe, certain, and swift the punishment, the better able it is to control criminal
behavior.
The classical perspective influenced judicial philosophy during much of the late 18th and 19th
centuries. Prison began to be used as a form of punishment, and sentences were geared
proportionately to the seriousness of the crime. Capital punishment still widely used but began
to be employed for only the most serious crime.
•The byword was “Let the punishment fit the crim
• The 2nd phase began in the 19th century known as the modern criminology.
During this era, Criminology distinguished itself as a subsequently within the
emerging disciplines of psychology, sociology and economics. Dr. Cesare
Lombroso, an Italian philosopher founded the Positivist School of Criminology.
Elements of Positivist School
The belief that human behavior is function of internal and external forces (social
factors, wealth, social class, etc)
Embracing the scientific method of inquiry to solve problems. Criminologists
conducted empirical tests (observations or experiments) of their theories
regarding crime rather than relying solely on speculations and developed a wide
range of theories.
During the latter part of the 19th century, criminology was accepted as field of
study by the department of sociology of a growing university in the United States.
Since that time, sociologists in the United States have made systematic studies of
crimes and criminals.
The 3rd phase began in the second half of the 21st century and called
as independent criminology.
Criminology began to assert its independence from the traditional
disciplines that spawned to it.
Criminological theories have become more multidisciplinary because
independent criminologists seek to understand crime itself rather than
study crime as one aspect of an overall sociological or psychological
theory.
Summarization
• The first stage was a long period of time during which nearly all explanations for
human existence were rooted in superstition and religion.
• The second stage was “rational understanding”, in which logical reasoning and
intuition of life are applied.
• In the 3rd stage in which Comte called the positivist stage - understanding came
primarily from Applying the scientific method.
• Research Enterprise of Criminology
Criminologists are not just concerned with the causes of crime; they also concerned on how to discover causes of
crime.
Criminologists are not just consumers of research to interpret a phenomenon; they are also producers of research
to contribute in understanding crimes and criminal behavior. Social phenomenon needs to be analyzed to
understand why something occurs in society, especially crimes and criminal behavior.
two approaches in criminology according to maxfield and bobby

*Agreement reality –
thing we consider real because we have been told they are real and everyone else seems to agree they are real.
Example: We believe in God because our parents said God exists and others believed it too even though no one has
seen God.
* Experiential reality –
thing we know from direct experience
.Example: We know fire can burn us, maybe because at some point of our lives we were burned by fire. Scientists
have certain criteria that must be met before they will agree on something that they have not experienced
personally.
In general, an assertion must have both logical and empirical support; it must make sense, and it must agree with
Importance of theory for Science

• Theory – result of scientific inquiries using empirical data. It involves an attempt to

develop reasonable explanation of reality. It is an effort to structure, summarize or
explain the essential elements of the subject being studied. Without the generation
of useful theoretical explanation, a field is intellectually bankrupt; it becomes merely
a collection of “war stories” and carefully documented encyclopedic accounts. It fails
to explain, summarize or capture the essential nature of its subject matter.
• A theory is made of clearly stated propositions suggesting relationship, often
causal, between events and occurrences being studied (Schmallger, 2011). It is also
a systematic explanation for the observed facts and laws that relate to a particular
aspect of life e.g. juvenile delinquency, domestic violence, violent crimes, and
property crimes (Maxfield and Babbie, 2018). It is a set of concepts linked together
by a series of statements to explain why an event or phenomenon occurs (Tibbetts,
2015).
Choice of Criminological Research
Methods
Qualitative Research – according to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), it is
exploratory in nature. It is an effort to understand situations in their
uniqueness as part of a particular context and interactions there.

• It uses words or experiences as data to be analyzed rather than

numbers as data. The over-all purpose of qualitative research is to
achieve an understanding of how people make sense out of their
lives, delineate the process of meaning-making and describe how
people interpret what they experience.
 Types of Qualitative Research
• Ethnographical Analysis – focuses on the culture and social regularities of
everyday life. This method is normally used to study the life and culture of
indigenous people, a certain cult, etc.

• Phenomenological Analysis – attends to ferreting out the essence or basic

structure of a phenomenon. The aim is to arrive at structural description of an
experience, the underlying and precipitating factors that account for what is being
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• Grounded Theory – consists of categories, properties, and hypotheses that are
conceptual links between and among the categories and properties. This is the
usual method used in developing a theory to explain a certain phenomenon.
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• Narrative Inquiry – the study of experience is done through stories. Emphasis is
on the stories people tell and how these are communicated – on the language
used to tell the stories. (BASE KA SA STORY DILI KA MAG ANALYZE ACROSS SA
ILANG STORY )
• Case Studies – an intensive, holistic description and analysis , bounded unit.
Conveying an understanding of the case is the paramount consideration in
analyzing the data. Data have usually been derived from interviews, field
observation and documents
Quantitative Research
According to Bhat (2017), it is a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering
quantifiable data performing statistical, mathematical or computation techniques.
General Types:
• 1. Survey Research – the most fundamental tool for all quantitative research
methodologies and studies. This method asks questions to a sample of respondents, using
various types like online polls, online surveys, and paper questionnaires.(PINAKA SIMPLE)
• 2. Correlation Research – conducted to establish a relationship between two closely knit
entitiesand how one impacts the other and what are the changes that are eventually
observed. (RELATION SA DUHA KA VARIABLE STUDY HOUR EXAM PERFPRMANCE )
• 3. Causal-Comparative Research – used by researchers to draw conclusion about cause-
effect equation between two or more variables, where one variable is dependent on the
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• 4. Experimental Research – usually bases on one or more theories. An analysis is done
around proving or disproving that statement. In an experimental research, a controlled
and uncontrolled participant will be used to determine and gather the
 Ethics of Criminological Research
• According to Cowburn, Gelsthorpe and Wahidin (2017), ethical principles and
concerns are at the heart of criminological research and can rise during the
planning, implementation and reporting stages. It is vital that researchers are
aware of the issues involved so that they can make informed decisions about the
implications of certain choices.
• Siegel (2019), emphasized that research should:
• Strive for the highest technical standards in research.
• Acknowledge limitations of research.
• Fully report findings.
• Disclose financial support and other sponsorship.
• Honor commitment.
• Make data available for future research.
LESSON II

SCHOOL THOUGHTS
IN CRIMINOLOGY
• 1. CLASSICAL SCHOOL
- This school of thought stated the crime is based the rational decision-making
process of motivated criminals.

Followers of this concept argued for a more rational approach to punishment,

stressing that the relationship between crimes and their punishment should be
balanced and fair. Based on the prevailing philosophy of “utilitarianism or
Hedonistic principle”
Based on this theory, actions are evaluated by their tendency to produce advantage,
pleasure and happiness and to avoid or prevent mischief, pain, evil or unhappiness.
• People want to achieve pleasure and avoid pain.
• Crimes must therefore provide some pleasure to the criminal. It follows that to
deter crime, one must administer pain in an appropriate amount to counterbalance
the pleasure obtained from crime.
Five-Principles used by society in reacting to criminal activities
• The Principle of Rationality – human beings have free will and the actions they undertake are
the result of choice.

• The Principle of Hedonism – pleasure and pain, or reward and punishment, are the major
determinants of choice.

• The Principle of Punishment – criminal punishment is a deterrent to unlawful behavior and

deterrence is best justification for punishment.

• The Human Rights Principles – society is made possible by individuals cooperating together.
Hence, society owes to its citizen’s respect for their rights in the face of government action.

• The Due Process Principle – an accused should be presumed innocent until proven otherwise,
and an accused should not be subjected to punishment prior to guilt being lawfully
established.
Major Tenets of the Classical School
In the natural state, man was absolutely free. And in forming a government, he gave up natural
liberties in exchange for the security or protection given by government.
• Laws of the state became means of preventing man from encroachment with other man’s
freedom.
• Basis of social action on crimes is greatest happiness for the greatest number.
• Punishment of crime should be severe enough to overbalance the pleasure derived from the
illegal act.
• Punishment is justified only if it prevents crime through deterrence.
• Demand for effective preventive methods.
Contented that all persons who violated special law should receive identical punishments
regardless of age, sanity, position or circumstances.
Focused on two causes of crime:
• Economic conditions – property crimes are committed by the poor out of necessity.
• Cruel or bad laws – promote criminality by diminishing the human spirit
Cesare Beccaria
• • Also known as Cesare Bonesana Marchese di Beccaria
• Born in Italy
• Eldest of four children
• Trained at Catholic schools and earned a Doctor of Laws degree by the age of 20.
• His most important contribution was to consider crime as an injury to society.
• •He claimed that although almost criminals are punished based upon an assessment of their
criminal intent, they should be punished instead based upon the degree of injury they cause.
• The purpose of punishment should be deterrence rather than retribution.
• Believed that in order to prevent crimes and achieve deterrence, a number of conditions
must be met.
• Severity
• Certain
• •Celerity or swiftness
Jeremy Bentham
• An English Utilitarian Philosopher and lawyer who wrote the Introduction to the
Principles of Morals and Legislations.
• Argued that nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign
master, pain and pleasure.
• Advocated a philosophy of social control which is the principle of utility.
• • Utilitarianism is the doctrine that the purpose of all actions should be to bring about
the greatest
• happiness for the greatest number of people. Actions are calculated in accordance
with their likelihood of obtaining pleasure or pain.
Major Tenets
• Law must be efficient, economical means of preventing crimes.
• Prevention was the only justifiable purpose of punishment.
• •Recommended that penalties must be fixed to impose an amount of pain in excess
of the pleasure derived from the criminal act.
• Capital punishment should be restricted to offense, which in the highest degree
shock the public feelings.
Hedonistic calculus
• - Refers to people acting in accordance with their desires to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
Elements:
• 1. In every society, people have freewill to choose criminal or lawful solutions to meet their needs
or settle their problems.
• 2. Criminal solutions may be more attractive than lawful ones because they usually require less
work for a greater payoff;
• 3. Person’s choice of criminal solutions may be controlled by his or her fear of punishment.
• 4. The more severe, certain, and swift the punishment, the better able it is to control criminal
behavior.

• - Bentham’s other Contribution:

• - -Panopticon house – a circular building with cells along the circumference that are clearly
visible from a central location staffed by guards.
2. Neo-Classical School
• This school posits that the actor is no longer isolated, atomistic rational man of pure reason.
• Crime is the result of free will of men but was committed due to some compelling reasons.
• Humans are creatures guided by reason, possessing free will, and therefore are responsible
for
their acts and can be controlled by fear of punishment.
• The pain from the punishment must exceed the pleasure obtained from the criminal act;
then free
will determines the desirability of non-criminal conduct.
• Neo-classical takes into account contextual circumstances of the individual or situation that
allow for increase or decrease in the punishment.
• French society concluded that Beccaria’s system was neither fair nor effective in terms of
deterrence.
• French revised their laws to take into account both mitigating and aggravating
circumstances. This concept became standard in all Western judicial systems.
• Neo-classical Schools of thought existing today
Neoclassical school continues to build upon ideas inherent in the notion of a social contract and places an emphasis
on individual rights and due process.
Takes the form of 3 ideas that extend well beyond the calculus of determinate sentencing.
• – Criminal behavior is the result of free choice.
• – Criminal behavior is rewarding and crime holds a number of attractions , from sensuality to monetary gain to
fame.
• – Criminal punishment is necessary for deterrence.
Arguments of Neo-classical
• Children under 7 years of age were incapable of making their own decisions.
• The insane and the feebleminded were incapable of freedom of action.
• The courts should take into account factors such as mitigating circumstances, incompetence, pathology and the
past record of offenders.
• Just Deserts Model – the notion that criminal offenders deserve the punishment they receive at the hands of the
law and that punishment should be appropriate to the type and severity of crimes similar to the one for which a
particular offender is being sentence.
• Specific Deterrence – a goal of criminal sentencing, which seeks to prevent a particular offender from engaging in
repeated criminal liability.
• General Deterrence - a goal of criminal sentencing, which seeks to prevent others from committing crimes similar
to the one for which a particular offender is being sentence.
• Eight Key Elements of Classical and Current-day Neoclassical Criminology
• Human beings are fundamentally rational, and most human behavior results from free will
coupled with rational choice.
• Pain and pleasure are the 2 central determining factors of human behavior.
• Punishment serves to deter law violators and as an example to others who might contemplate
violating the law.
• The principles of right and wrong are inherent in our nature and cannot be denied.
• Society exists to provide benefits to individuals that they would not receive living in isolation.
• When people band together for the protection offered by society, they forfeit some of their
personal
• freedoms in order to enjoy the benefit of living among others cooperatively.
• Certain key rights of the individual are necessary for the enjoyment of life and governments
that restricts and prohibit the exercise of those rights should be disbanded.
• Crime lessens the quality of the contractual bond that exists between individuals and their
society. Therefore, criminal acts cannot be tolerated by any members if everyone wants to
receive the most benefit from living in a cooperative society.
• 3. POSITIVE/POSTIVIST SCHOOL
Positivism was developed as the scientific method in Europe. This movement was inspired by new discoveries in
biology, astronomy and chemistry.
They believe that the scientific method can be used to study human behavior and explain clearly the cause of criminal
behavior.
It is focused on the offender as an appropriate object of study, which the 18th century reformers had not done.
Italian school framed the so-called “nature-versus-nurture debate” (whether biological and social factors create
behavior that became a principal theme throughout the development of modern criminology.
The term positivism came from the writings of August Comte, who proposed the use of the scientific method in the
study of society in his 1851 work “A System of Positive Polity”.
Comte believed that a new positive age was dawning during which both society and human nature would be
perfected, and his writings were an attempt to bring that age to completion.
3 Positivist Interrelated Philosophical Assumptions
• Human behavior is controlled entirely by natural forces. It also called assumption.
• The primary way to achieve an understanding of human behavior is not through contemplation and introspection,
but through recording and sharing scientific observation.
• Positivism assumes that assumes that human mankind pools its observations and thereby gradually comes to
better understand the forces governing human actions.
• Positivism has 2 main Elements
• The first is the belief human behavior is a function of internal and external forces. Some of these forces are social,
such as the effect of wealth and class, and others are political and historical, such as war and famine.
• 3. POSITIVE/POSTIVIST SCHOOL
Positivism was developed as the scientific method in studying crime . They believe
that the scientific method can be used to study human behavior and explain clearly
the cause of criminal behavior.
this theory introduced August comte in nthe field of criminology and he is also
reffered to as the father of sociology and Cesare Lombroso uses the idea of Comte
and the Former Reffered to as the father of modern criminology
Two types of explaining crime
Positivism

Determinism- Determinism, from a criminological perspective, is a philosophy

contending that human behavior is caused by biological and psychological factors
specific to individuals and/or the Sociological factors that comprise one's
environment
Biological Factor ( Cesare Lombroso)- Biological determinism is the theory that
most things people do are determined by their genetic makeup, which they
inherited from their parents. It is also called genetic determinism, biodeterminism,
and biologism
Applied the concepts of ATAVISM (throwback and reversal to an earlier trait of
ancestors) for his ideas about the evolution of crimes).
he imtorduced the essay of “crimes: causes and remedies “
six classification of criminals aacording to lombroso

• Born criminals – According to Lombroso, atavistic stigmata consisted of features

of a sloping forehead, poor symmetry of the cranium, a protruding lower jaw, and
long arms. He believed that these features indicated poor genetics and predicted
certain types of crimes.
• insane criminals – idiots, imbeciles, demented and paralyzed
• Criminaloids – weak by nature lack of self control
criminal by passion - commits crime by fits of intense EMOTION
Occasional Criminal - commits crime if given an oppurtunity
Pseudo Criminal- commited crime by virtiue of self deffense
• Sociological Factor (Enrico Ferri)
Sociological positivism mainly focuses on how certain social factors of an
individual's life can lead to a higher propensity for crime.

• Psychological factor ( Rafael Garofalo )

The psychological positivism theory concentrates on all of the mental
aspects of why an individual commits a crime, and associates it with their
intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behaviour
classiicationof criminal by garofalo
•Murderers Criminal - commits crime by virtue of revenge
•Violent criminal - criminals who always harm people physicaly
•deficient Criminals - commits property crime because of poverty
•Lascivious criminal - always seeking for sexual kgratification
Charles Buckman Goring
An English physician who conducted a well-controlled statistical study of
Lombroso’s thesis of atavism.
• He examined nearly 3000 inmates at Turin prison beginning in 1901.
• He concluded that “the whole fabric of Lombrosian doctrine, judged by the
standards of science, is fundamentally [Link] the so called “The
English Convict: A Statistical Study”
4. French School oF thought
• The school of thought to is likely the French Criminological School, which
integrated social, psychological, biological, and environmental factors in
understanding crime. This multidisciplinary approach emphasized that crime is
socially defined and socially determined, yet acknowledged the role of
biological and physical factors.
Major Thinker of French School
• Gabriel Tarde
• – A French lawyer and sociologist.
• – Emphasized that social factors were sufficient to explain why crime varied overtime within
each time.
• – Contended that some people learn to engage in crime much as other people learn legitimate
occupations and social customs.
Major Theories
• • Criminal behavior is largely learned from what he called as laws of imitation. This meant that
people imitate other with whom they frequent contact essentially the same way people copy and
come to prefer different style of clothing.
• Viewed the professional criminals (murderer, pickpocket and swindlers) as an individual who
goes
through a long period of apprenticeship in as much as the same way as lawyer, physician or nurse.
5. SOCIALIST SCHOOL
• Based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that began around
1850, they emphasized economic determinism. It concentrates on the need for
quality among the citizens.
• Their theories are based upon the basic idea that poverty causes people to be
inclined to criminal activities.
• Poverty – the condition of that group only whose income is low and therefore,
the standard of living is not enough to sustain normal health and efficiency.
The Cartographic School of Criminology, which emerged in the early 19th century, is closely linked with the works
of Adolphe Quetelet and André-Michel Guerry. This school focuses on the use of statistical analysis and
geographical mapping to understand patterns of crime. It represents one of the first attempts to apply
quantitative methods to criminology, seeking to identify how social factors influence crime rates across different
regions

Key principles of the Cartographic School:

• Geographical Distribution of Crime – This school is known for using maps to chart crime rates, showing how
crime is distributed across various regions. Their studies revealed that certain areas consistently had higher
crime rates than others.
• Social and Environmental Factors – Guerry and Quetelet discovered that crime rates were often influenced by
social conditions like poverty, education levels, and population density. They demonstrated that crime is not
random but can be linked to specific factors in the environment.
• Crime Statistics – The Cartographic School heavily relied on statistical data to show correlations between crime
and social variables. Quetelet, for example, created the concept of the "average man" to describe how crime
rates were relatively stable over time, suggesting that social forces influence crime more than individual factors.
• Determinism – Like other early criminological theories, the Cartographic School leaned toward the idea of
social determinism, implying that certain conditions in society predispose people to commit crimes.
• Prevention Through Policy – By understanding where crime is concentrated and the social factors contributing
to it, the Cartographic School advocated for targeted social reforms, like better education and poverty
alleviation, to reduce crime
Major Thinkers of Cartographic School
• Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet
• – A Belgian mathematician.
• – This approach made use of social statistics that were being developed in Europe in the early 19th
century.
• – He was one of the first social scientists to use objective mathematical techniques to investigate the
influence of social factors, such as season, climate, sex and age on the
propensity to commit crime.
• – Most important findings was that social forces were significantly correlated with crime rates.
• – He identified many of the relationships between crime and social phenomena that still serves as a
basis for criminology today.
Major Theories
• • Scientific law should be observed from a number of certain degrees of probability resulting from a
number of observations rather than in individual occurrences.
• • Introduced the use of quantitative techniques in the study of crimes.
• • Used moral statistics to establish scientific laws.
• • Man have greater propensity for crimes than women; young greater than old.
• Andre- Michel Guerry
• A second prominent contributor to the cartographic school, he was a French
lawyer.
• Meticulously shaped maps of various regions of France according to their
crime rates.
• He was the first person known to objectively test the hypothesis that crime
was most prevalent among the poor uneducated.
• He concluded that property crimes were higher in wealthy areas but violent
crimes were much higher in poor areas.
• He indicated that area of France that tends to have the fewest crimes against
property also tend to
• have the most crimes against persons.
They showed that several wealthiest and most economically developed areas
have among the highest rates of crimes against property.
lesson 3

DEVIANCE CRIME
AND CRIMINAL
 a term used to describe actions or identities that are different from what is
considered normal within a group or society.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN DEVIANT BEHAVIOR AND CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
Hagan, 2010) may refer Deviant behavior to a broad range of activities that the
majority in society may view as eccentric, dangerous, annoying, bizarre,
outlandish, gross, abhorrent behavior that does not conform to the expectations
of a group, community or society as a whole. Criminal behavior on the other hand
is behavior in violation of the criminal law of society.
What is crime?
Legal Concept:
• - It is an act omitted or committed in violation of a public law forbidding or
commanding it.
• - It is an intentional act or omission in violation of criminal law committed
without defense or
• justification and sanctioned by law as a felony or misdemeanor.
• - There is a difference between an act committed and an act omitted
• Crimes are defined by criminal or penal laws that explicitly state what actions are prohibited, what actions are required to be done
and provides for the penalties or punishments to be imposed in case of violation of laws. Without laws that prohibit an act, the act
cannot be called a crime.
• Social Definition
- It is an act, which a group regards as menacing sufficiently the fundamental interests of a group in order to justify the formal
reaction of restraining the violator. - It is considered as behavior that violates the norms of society, and its simplest term, anti-social
behavior.
• Rational Choice Theorists
- They view crime in terms of Bentham’s principle of maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. People will choose crime if they
perceive that its pleasure exceeds the pain they might conceivably expect if discovered.
The theory does not assume that we are all equally at risk to commit criminal acts, or that we do not commit crimes simply because
we do not want to.-
The theory recognizes the factors such as temperament, intelligence, class, family structure and neighborhood impact our choices, it
largely ignores these factors in favor of concentrating on the conscious thought processes involved in making decision to offend.-
Rational Choice Theory simply assumes criminally motivated offenders will always be with us and focus on the process of their choices
to offend. This process is known as choice structuring and defined as the constellation of opportunities, costs and benefits attaching
to particular kinds of crimes. Thus, criminal events require that motivated offenders meet situation that they perceive as an
opportunity to acquire something they want.
• Routine Activities
defined as (Walsh, 2012) recurrent and prevalent activities which provide for basic population
and individual [Link] are the day-to-day activities characterizing a particular community.
- This theory looks at crime from the points of view both the offender and of crime from the
points of view both the offender and of crime prevention efforts.
- A crime will only be committed when a motivated offender believe that they have found
WHAT CONSTITUTE A CRIME?
Walsh (2012) emphasized that the following factors constitute a crime. These factors co-exist for without them; there
will be no crime to be considered.
1. Corpus delicti – a Latin term meaning body of the crime and refers to the elements of an act that must be present in
order to legally define it as a crime. All crime have their own specific elements, which are the essential constituent parts
that define the act as criminal.
2. Actus reus – means guilty act or criminal conduct and refers to principle that a person must commit some forbidden
act or neglect some mandatory act before he or she can be subjected to criminal sanctions. In effect, this principle of
law means that people cannot be criminally prosecuted for thinking something or being something but only for doing
something. This prevents government from passing laws criminalizing statuses and systems of thought they don’t like.
Example: although drunken behavior may be punishable crime, being an alcoholic cannot be punished because being
something is a status, not an act.
3. Mens rea – means guilty mind or refers to whether or not the suspect had a wrongful purpose in mind when carrying
out the actusreus. Negligence, recklessness and carelessness that results in some harmful consequences, even though
not intended, do not excuse such behavior from criminal prosecution under mensrea. Conditions that may preclude
prosecution under this principle are self defense defense of others, insanity and extreme duress or coercion.
4. Concurrence –means that the act (actus reus) and mental state (mens rea) concur in the sense that the criminal
intention actuates the criminal [Link]: If John sets out with his tools to rob Mary’s apartment and takes VCR, he
has fused the guilty mind with the wrongful act and has therefore committed [Link], assume John and Mary
are friends who habitually visit each other’s apartment unannounced. One day John decides to visit Mary, finds her not
at home, but walks in and suddenly decides that he could sell Mary’s VCR for drug money. Although the loss of Mary is
the same in both scenarios, in the latter’s instance John cannot be charged with robbery because he did not enter her
apartment by force or fraud, the crucial element needed to satisfy such a charged. In this case, the concurrence of guilty
mind and wrongful occurred after lawful entry, so he is only charged with theft, a less serious one
5. Causation – refers to the necessity to establish a causal link between the criminal act
and the harm suffered. This causal link must be proximate, not ultimate.
Example: Supposed Tony wounds Frank in a knife fight. Being macho, Frank attends to
the wounds himself. Three weeks later, the wounds become severely infected and
results in his death. Can Tony be charged of murder? Although the wounding led to
Frank’s death (the ultimate cause), Frank’s disregard for the seriousness of his injury
was the most proximate (or direct) cause of his death. And yet Tony is still criminally
liable for homicide.
6. Harm – refers to the negative impact a crime has either on the victim or on general
values of the community. Although the harm caused by the criminal act is often
obvious, the harm caused by many so called victimless is often less obvious. Yet some
victimless crimes can cause ore social harm in the long run than many crimes with
obvious [Link], Tibbetts (2015) mentioned another concept that can
constitute a crime when present, Mala Prohibita. It has a literal meaning of “evil
because prohibited”. This term acknowledges that these crimes are not inherently evil
acts; they are bad only because the law says so. In the Philippines, mala prohibita acts
are defined and penalized under special penal laws like illegal gambling, fencing, drugs
HOW DO CRIMINOLOGISTS VIEW CRIME?
THREE VIEWS OF CRIME
1. The Consensus View
- In this view crimes are considered behaviors that are essentially harmful to a majority of citizens living in
society and therefore have been controlled or prohibited by the existing criminal law.
It implies that the criminal law represents the consensus of public opinion and there is general agreement
about which behaviors society needs to control and which should be beyond state regulation.
- Therefore, crimes are behaviors believed to be repugnant to all elements of society.
- The substantive criminal law, which is written code that defines crimes and their punishments, reflects the
values, beliefs and opinions of society’s mainstream.
The term consensus is used because it implies that there is general agreement among a
majority of citizens on what behaviors should be outlawed by the criminal law and henceforth
viewed as crimes.
- The eminent criminologist Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey have taken the popular stance of linking
crime with the criminal law; that “Criminal behavior is behavior in violation of the criminal law. It is not a
crime unless it is prohibited by law. Criminal law is defined as a body of specific rules regarding human
conduct which have been promulgated by political authority, apply uniformly to all members of the classes
to which the rules refer, and which are enforced by punishment administered by the state”. This approach to
crime implies that it is a function of the beliefs, morality and rules established by the existing legal power
structure.
• 2. The Conflict View
• - Under this view, the law is controlled by the rich and powerful who shape its content to ensure their continued
economic domination of society.
- This view supports that criminal law is created and enforced by the ruling class as a mechanism for controlling
dissatisfied and disenfranchised members of society.
• - Apparently, the law is the instrument that enables the wealthy to maintain their position of
power and control the behavior of those who oppose their ideas and values or who might rebel against unequal
distribution of wealth.
- It depicts society as a collection of diverse groups – owners, workers, professionals and students – who are in
constant and continuing conflict. Groups able to assert their political power, use the law and the criminal justice system
to advance their economic and social position. Criminal laws, therefore, are viewed as acts created to protect the
“haves and the have-nots”.
• - According to this view, the definition of crime is controlled by those who possess wealth, power and position.
Crime is shaped by the values of the ruling class and not by an objective moral consensus that reflects the needs of
all people. Crime is a political concept designed to protect the power and position of the upper classes at the
expense of the poor.
• - Rather than being class neutral, criminal law reflects and protects established economic, racial, gendered and
political power and privilege.
• - Conflict criminologists often compare and contrast the harsh penalties exacted on the poor for their “street crimes”
(burglary, robbery and theft) with the minor penalties the wealthy receive for their white-collar crimes (securities
violation and other illegal business practices), which cause considerably more social harm. While the poor go to
prison for minor law violations, the wealthy are given lenient sentences for even the most serious breaches of law.
• 3. The Interactionist View
• - It traces its antecedents to the symbolic interaction school of sociology, first popularized by pioneering
sociologists George Herbert Mead, Charles Horton Cooley and W.I. Thomas
• - This position states that (Siegel, 2013, p. 14): People act according to their own interpretations of reality;
through which they assign meaning to things; They observe the way others to react it, either positively or
negatively; and They reevaluate and interpret their own behavior according to the meaning and symbols
they have learned from others.
• - According to this perspective, there is no objective reality. People, institutions and events are viewed
subjectively and labeled either good or evil according to the interpretation of the evaluator.
• - In this view, the definition of crime reflects the preferences and opinions of people who hold social power
in a particular legal jurisdiction.
• - To the interactionist, crime has no meaning unless people react it negatively. The one-time criminal, if not
caught or labeled, can simply return to a “normal” way of life with little permanent damage.
• - Howard Becker (Siegel, 2013) argued, “the deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been
applied; the deviant behavior is behavior people so labeled.” According to the interactionist view, the
definition of crime reflects the preferences and opinions.
• - These moral entrepreneurs wage campaigns (moral crusades) to control behaviors they view as immoral
and wrong (e.g. abortion) or conversely, to legalize behaviors they consider harmless social eccentricities
(e.g., carrying a handgun for self-protection; smoking pot). Because drug use offends their moral sense, it is
currently illegal to purchase marijuana and hashish, while liquor and cigarettes are sold openly, even
though far more people die of alcoholism and smoking than from drug abuse each year.
LEGAL CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES
The following are the legal classifications of crimes based on the Revised
Penal Code of the Philippines.

A. ACCORDING TO LAW VIOLATED

1. Felony – an act or cimmitted or ommited punishable by law which is

committed by means of dolo (deceit) or culpa (fault) and punishable under
the Revised Penal [Link] committed by means of dolo are called
intentional felonies while those committed by means of culpa are called
culpable felonies.
2. Offense – an act or omission in violation of a special law.
3. Infraction – an act or omission in violation of a city or municipal ordinance
• B. AS TO THE MANNER OF COMMISSION:
1. By means of dolo or deceit when the act was done with deliberate intent;
2. By means of culpa or fault when the wrongful act results from imprudence, negligence, lack of foresight or lack of
skill.
• C. AS TO THE STAGES IN THE COMMISSION OF CRIMES
1. Consummated crime – when all the elements necessary for its execution and accomplishment are present.
2. Frustrated crime – when the offender has performed all the acts of execution which will produce the felony as a
consequence but which nevertheless do not produce it, by reason of causes independent of the will of the
perpetrator.
3. Attempted crime – when the offender commences the commission of a crime directly by overt acts and does not
perform all the acts of execution which should produce the felony by reason of some cause or accident other than his
own spontaneous desistance.
•D. ACCORDING TO PLURALITY
1. Simple crime – single act constituting only one offense
2. Complex crime – single act constituting two or more grave felonies or is a necessary means for committing the
other.
compound crime(delito compuesto)- single act constitute grave or less grave felony (ex putting a bomb resulting for
the injury of everyone and death of some
complex crime proper A complex proper, or delito complejo, is a crime where one offense is a necessary means to
commit another offense ( forgery to withraw money)
special complex crime-
E. ACCORDING TO GRAVITY
1. Grave felonies – those to which the law attaches the capital punishment or afflictive penalties
2. Less grave felonies – those to which the law attaches correctional penalties
Arresto mayor: A penalty that can range from one month and one day to six months

Suspension: A penalty that can be imposed for a period of six years

Destierro: A penalty that prohibits the offender from entering a designated

3. Light felonies – those to which the law attaches the penalty of arresto menor or a fine not
exceeding P200.00
CRIMINOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES
• Meanwhile, Guevara and Bautista (2013) presented the following criminological classification of crimes:
• A. ACCORDING TO THE RESULT OF THE CRIME:
1. Acquisitive crime – the offender acquires something by committing the crime like theft and
robbery
2. Extinctive crime – the consequence of the act is destruction, damage or even death like arson, physical injury,
murder, homicide and malicious mischief
• B. ACCORDING TO THE TIME OR PERIOD OF THE COMMISSION OF THE CRIME:
1. Seasonal crime – committed only during a certain period of the year such as violation election laws and tax laws
2. Situational crime – committed only when the situation is conducive to its commission, meaning, there is
opportunity to commit it. Examples are robbery if there is nobody in the house, physical injury or homicide can
happen in drinking spree.
• C. ACCORDING TO THE LENGTH OF THE TIME OF THE COMMISSION OF THE CRIME:
1. Instant crime – committed in the shortest possible time like theft
2. Episoidal crime – committed by a series of acts in a lengthy space of time like scenarios illegal
detention.
• D. ACCORDING TO THE PLACE OR LOCATION:
1. Static crime – committed in only one place such as theft and robbery
2. Continuing crime – committed in several places like abduction
• E. ACCORDING TO THE USE OF MENTAL FACULTIES
1. Rational crime – committed with intent and offender is in full possession of his sanity, meaning,
he knows what he is doing and understand the consequences of his action.
2. Irrational crime – committed by an offender who does not know the nature and quality of his
act on account of the disease of the mind; offender is suffering from any form of mental insanity,
disorder or abnormality.
• F. ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF OFFENDER
1. White-collar crime – committed by a person belonging to the upper socio-economic class in
the course of his occupational activities such as insurance fraud, medical malpractice and
falsification of documents.
2. Blue-collar crime – committed by ordinary professional criminal to maintain his livelihood like
pick pocketing, snatching
• CRIME VOLUME AND CRIME RATE
Crime volume is the number of crimes reported as to its classification, whether index or non-
index at given period.
Crime rate is the measure of the rate of occurrences of crimes committed in a given area and
• If the population of municipal "A" is 200,000 and the crime volume is
about 2,550. what is the possible crime rate?
cr= 2550/200,000
cr= 1,275

police station A listed 15 cases of robbery in 2019 and there are about 10
cases of robbery solved in 2021 what is the cse
cse = 10/15
cse= 66.67
WHO ARE CONSIDERED CRIMINALS?
• Legal sense:
- Any person who has been found to have committed a wrongful act in the course of the standard judicial process and has
received a final verdict of his guilt.
Criminological sense:
- A person is already considered a criminal the moment he committed a crime.
Sociological sense:
- One who violated a social norm or one who did an anti-social act. A person who violated rules of conduct due to behavioral
maladjustment.
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMINALS
On the basis of etiology:
1. Acute criminals – persons who violate criminal law because of the impulse of the moment, fit of
passion or anger. The person committed the crime as a result of reacting to situation liked during a
moment of anger.
2. Chronic criminals – persons who acted in consonance with deliberated thinking, such as:
a. Neurotic criminals – persons whose actions arise from intra-psychic conflict between the
social and anti-social components of his personality. The individual is suffering from mental
disorder.
b. Normal criminals – persons whose psychic organization resembles that of a normal individual
except that he identifies himself with criminal prototype. He looks up to people who are
• On the basis of behavioral system:
1. Ordinary criminals – the lowest form of criminal career; they engage only in conventional crimes which require
limited skill. They do not stick to crimes as a profession but rather pushed to commit crimes due to great
opportunity.
2. Organized criminals – these criminals have a high degree of organization that enables them to commit crimes
without being detected and committed to specialized activities which can be operated in large scale businesses.
They associate with other criminals to earn a high degree of organization to enable them to commit crimes easily
without being detected by authorities.
3. Professional criminals – these are highly skilled and able to obtain considerable amount of money without being
detected because of organization and contact with other professional criminals. They are usually those who practice
crime as a profession to maintain a living.
• On the basis of activities:
1. Professional criminals – those who earn living through criminal activities. Their criminal activities. Their criminal
activities are constant in order to earn skill and develop ability in their act.
2. Accidental criminals – those who commit criminal acts as a result of unanticipated circumstances.
3. Habitual criminals – those who continue to commit criminal acts for such diverse reasons due to deficiency of
intelligence and lack of control.
4. Situational criminals – those who are actually not criminals but get in trouble with legal authorities because they
commit crimes intermixed with legitimate economic activities.
On the basis of mental attitude
• 1. Active criminals – are those who commit crimes due to aggressiveness
2. Passive inadequate criminals – are those who commit crimes because they are
pushed to it by reward or promise.
3. Socialized delinquents – are criminals who are normal in behavior but defective
in their socialization process or development.
Meanwhile, Guevara and Bautista (2013) presented the legal classifications of
criminals into the following:
• As to the gravity of offense:
1. Habitual criminals – are those who, within a period of ten years from the date of
his release or last conviction of the same crimes whether serious or less serious is
found guilty of any of the said crimes or a third time offender.
2. Recidivist criminals – are those who, at the time of his trial for one time, shall
have been previously convicted by the final judgment of another crime under the
same title of the Revised Penal Code.
• CRIME PATTERN
• a. Age and Crime
Age is a consideration to crime since most adult offenders have a long history of juvenile
delinquency. As emphasized by Siegel (2019), there is general agreement that age is inversely related
to criminality. The criminologists Travis Hirschi and Michael Gottferson argue that age is everywhere
correlated with crime. Its effect on crime do not depend on other demographics correlates of
crimes. Regardless of economic status, marital status, race, sex and other factors, younger people to
commit crime more often that older people and this relationship has been stable across time.
• With the recent crimes being reported by juveniles in the Philippines, there are very few local data
available to predict and test this statement of Siegel. However, using foreign data will also shed
light the correlation of age and crime. As stated by Hagan (2017), UnitedStates data indicated that
the ages for youths involved in crimes peak at age of 16 for property crime and age 18 peak for
violent crimes. Glaring is the involvement of younger groups in serious property crimes.
• Moreover, Siegel further stated that criminologists agree that people commit less crime as they
age. Crime peaks in adolescence and then declines rapidly thereafter, a phenomenon called “aging
out of crime”. Deviance in adolescence is fueled by the need for money and sex and is reinforced
by close relationship with peers who defy conventional morality
• AGING OUT PHENOMENON
Time, Season and Crime
• Other factor to consider about crime trends is place and time. According to Siegel
(2019), there are distinct temporal and ecological patterns in the crime rate.
Metropolitan areas are more crime prone that sub-urban or rural areas. But even in
large cities not all areas and neighborhood have similar crime rate. These
concentrated areas may contain ecological features such as housing projects that
experience a disproportionate share of crime incidents. Moreover, there are
seasonal crime patterns. Crime rates are highest during the warm summer months
due to influx of teenagers out of school and have more opportunity to commit
crimes.
• According to Tupas (2018), Philippine National Police Chief Oscar Albayalde
stressed that certain crimes normally increases in certain period of the year. These
are what they call seasonal crimes. During the Christmas holidays there is a surge in
property crimes since there are more potential victims out in the streets busy
buying gifts and take leisure trips. Similarly, theft is the most common crime
because the Philippines have a cash economy. Thieves and pickpockets can easily
gain access to thousands of pesos. Petty thieves are unlikely to be apprehended
• c. Social Class and Crime
According to Siegel (2019), crime is often considered a lower-class phenomenon: people
living in inner-city, high-poverty areas are more generally likely to join gangs, sell drugs,
and commit crimes than those in a wealthy suburban area. Neighborhoods experiencing
income inequality, lack of informal social controls and resource deprivation have crime
rates significantly higher than those that can provide economic opportunities for their
residents. Indeed, one cannot deny a direct relation between social class and crime. As
further stressed by Hagan (2017), criminality for traditional crimes is higher among
lower-class individuals. Traditional explanation of crime and social class view
relationship as an inverse one; that is, as social class becomes higher, the volume of
crime commission decreases proportionately.
However, not all criminologists or social scientists accept this dogma. According to
Siegel, not all criminologists accept the class-crime association at face value. An
alternative explanation is that the relationship between crime and social class is a
function of law enforcement practices, not actual criminal behavior patterns. Police may
devote more resources in poor areas, and consequently, apprehension and arrest rates
may be higher in these communities. This situation gives a false picture of the true
social-class and crime association.
• d. Unemployment and Crime
Most laymen would agree with the concept of unemployment and crime relation. As stated by Siegel
(2019), it stands to reason that crime rates correlate with unemployment rates, peaking during tough
economic times when people are out of work and money is tight. Unemployed people may feel
frustrated and discouraged, leading not to an increase in property crime but also aggression and
violence. Research has linked unemployment rates to higher crime rates, especially economic support
such as welfare and unemployment benefits.
According to Hagan (2017), in summarizing the diverse literatures on the relationship between trends
in the economy and crime, the following conclusions can be drawn:
• 1. Serious crimes have a slight and inconsistent tendency to rise in periods of economic depression
and to fall in periods of prosperity.
• 2. The general crime rate does not increase significantly in periods of economic depressions.
• 3. Property crimes involving violence tend to increase in periods of depression, but property crimes
involving no violence, such as theft, show only a slight and inconsistent tendency to increase in
economic depression.
• 4. Juvenile delinquency tends to increase in periods of prosperity and to decrease during periods of
prosperity and to decrease during periods of economic [Link] essence, the relationship of
economy and crime is not honest-to-goodness fixed. There are many variables to consider in every
situation. To firmly stress that economy is directly correlated to increase crime will tend to provide
e. Gender and Crime
In the study of criminology, /one can notice that males are more inclined to criminal activities than
female offenders. As stressed by Hagan (2017), of all the demographic variables, gender is the best
predictors of criminality; most persons arrested are males. The male crime rate exceeds that of
females universally, in all nations, in all communities, among all age groups and in all periods of
history for which statistics are available.
According to Siegel (2019), male crime rates are much higher than those of females. However, even
though gender difference in crime rate have persisted over time, there seems little questions that
females are now involved in many serious criminal activities and
that there are more similarities than differences between male and female offenders. Female arrest
rates have actually increased for serious property crimes for the past decade, while male crime rates
have undergone a decline during this same time frame. More importantly, Hagan (2017) emphasized
that this universality of disproportionate male criminality can be best explained by differential
treatment of males and females. Traditionally, males are socialized to be dominant, active and
aggressive. I fact, chivalry and law often require that the male take responsibility for what occurs. In
many traditional societies, it is the husband who is punished for his wife’s transgression. Similarly,
customary gender role socialization of females emphasizes positivity and subordinations. For most
males, crime is considered macho and enhances status, whereas, females crimes are usually
stigmatizing. Despite social changes, social expectation of women still centers on nurturing, beauty,
virtue and stereotypes of femininity that, are incompatible with the qualities valued in the criminal
lesson 4
• Understanding Criminal Behavior
According to Siegel (2015), criminology is the study of different types of crime and how they happen. Some examples of
crimes are violent crimes, theft, crimes that disturb public peace, and organized crime. Many researchers have tried to
understand why certain crimes happen.

• Marvin Wolfgang's Study on Homicide (1958):

Wolfgang studied homicide (murder) and found that in many cases, the victim helped start the fight that led to their death.
This idea is called victim-precipitated homicide, meaning the victim’s actions caused the situation that ended in their death.
• Edwin Sutherland's "White-Collar Crime":
Sutherland looked at crimes done by wealthy or powerful people, like stealing money from businesses or cheating in the
workplace. He called these types of crimes "white-collar crimes" because they are usually done by people in offices .
Criminology and New Types of Crime:
• Criminologists, or people who study crime, are always learning more because new types of crime keep appearing. For
example, 50 years ago, they mostly studied crimes like rape, murder, and robbery. Now, they also study cybercrimes,
human trafficking, terrorism, and crimes that harm the environment.
Terrorism Research:
Some criminologists now study terrorism to understand why some young people join terrorist groups. Some findings include:
• Mental illness is not the main reason why people become terrorists.
• There is no special personality or profile for a terrorist.
• Many terrorists have a history of childhood abuse and feelings of unfair treatment. But these things don’t fully explain why
they become terrorists.
• The Role of Early Life Experiences
In the study by Villa (1994), he explains that to truly understand criminal behavior,
we need to look at how a person's life experiences from childhood affect their
future actions. He uses the idea of a "generational time scale", which was created
by William Strauss and Neil Howe. They thought that each generation follows a
repeating pattern of events.
Villa points out that early life experiences play a huge role in whether someone
becomes a criminal. As we grow, we develop different traits, and these traits are
shaped by everything that happens to us in life. Some people end up using force,
deceit, or stealth to get what they want. These people may have self-centered
attitudes, lack of empathy for others, and low self-control
Important factors in early life experiences include:
• Parenting and family practices: How children are raised, the rules set by parents, and how they are
taught to solve problems can influence their behavior.
• Educational success: Doing well in school can help children avoid criminal behavior.
• Nutrition: A child’s health and diet also affect their development.
• Gene and environment interactions: How a child’s genetics mix with their environment plays a big role in
their behavior.
• Temperament: The way a child’s personality matches with their parents’ expectations can be important.
Some children may have a difficult time coping with their natural temperament, and how parents
manage this can affect the child’s behavior.
Other factors that affect a child’s development:
• Economic hardship: Living in poverty or in dangerous areas can increase the risk of crime.
• Family issues: Problems like job loss, marital conflict, and divorce can disrupt family life and lead to
crime.
• Supportive factors: Having a good temperament, doing well in school, having an educated mother, or
having supportive family members like grandparents can help protect against crime.
• Villa believes that if we improve early life experiences and guide child and adolescent development, we
can reduce crime in society. He suggests that nurturing strategies, such as better educational and
healthcare programs for children, can help stop crime before it starts. Unfortunately, governments don't
• Three Theories of Criminal Behavior
There are three main ways to understand criminal behavior:

Psychological Approaches
Sociological Approaches
Biological Approaches

While each approach looks at different causes of crime, they all agree that these factors can influence criminal behavior. These
approaches often overlap because behavior can be influenced by both the mind, society, and biological factors.

1. Psychological Approaches:
Psychological theories focus on how a person’s mind and personality affect their actions. Here are the key ideas of psychological
theories:

• The individual is the main focus in psychological theories (not society or biology).
• Personality drives a person’s behavior.
• Normal behavior is defined by what society considers normal.
• Crime happens when a person’s mental processes are unhealthy, or when they have an abnormal way of thinking.
• Criminal behavior might seem useful to the person if it helps meet their needs.
• Mental issues can come from things like disease, bad learning, or wrong role models.
Psychological theories also suggest that punishment for crime, like jail time or fines, is based on how people learn through rewards
and punishments. However, research shows that positive reinforcement (rewards) is more effective than punishment in changing
2. Sociological Approaches:
Sociological theories look at how society and social relationships influence criminal
behavior. These theories focus on:
• How the individual connects with their family, peer groups, and society at
[Link] conflicts within society or different social groups that might lead to
crime.
• How society and its problems have changed over time.
• The social causes of crime, like unequal opportunities between different groups
of people.
Sociologist Durkheim believed that crime is a normal part of society and that
society should control it, but not eliminate it completely. Sociologists also argue
that society decides what is criminal, so some actions that don’t hurt others (like
drug use or prostitution) are still considered crimes.
3. Biological Approaches:
Biological theories suggest that crime might be caused by physical problems in the
body or brain. These issues can include:

Heredity (genetics passed down from parents).

Brain abnormalities or problems with how the brain develops.

Dysfunction in neurotransmitters (chemicals in the brain that affect behavior).

Understanding Aggression
According to Bartol and Bartol (2017), aggression and violence are closely related, but they are not
the same. Aggression is any behavior intended to harm someone physically or psychologically, or to
damage an object.
Aggression is not always violent in the physical sense. For example, spreading rumors or making
someone feel bad psychologically are forms of aggression but not violent acts. Some criminologists
argue that aggression helped humans survive in the past. Through history, aggressive behavior helped
people get resources, protect their families, and gain power or status. But the key question in studying
crime is: Is aggression something humans are born with, something we learn, or a mix of both?
• Biological View of Aggression:
Some criminologists believe aggression is biological and genetic, something humans inherited from
their evolutionary past. If aggression is part of our nature, society must work hard to prevent it, using
laws and punishments to control violent behavior.
However, not all aggression is criminal. For example, police officers using force to control a suspect are
being aggressive but it is not criminal if the force is reasonable. Similarly, self-defense against a serious
threat is aggressive but not a crime if the force used is necessary and proportional.
• Learned Aggression:
Other criminologists believe that aggression is learned from life experiences and is influenced by
social, environmental, and situational factors. In this view, aggression isn’t something we must
naturally experience—it’s something we can control or change.
Types of Aggression:
Aggression can be categorized in different ways:
• Active vs. Passive: Active aggression involves directly doing something harmful,
like hitting someone. Passive aggression involves indirect harm, like refusing to
speak to someone or spreading gossip.
• Direct vs. Indirect: Direct aggression is face-to-face, like punching or insulting
someone. Indirect aggression involves actions that harm someone without direct
confrontation, like setting up pranks or obstructing someone's way.
Important Note:
All violent behavior is aggressive, but not all aggressive behavior is violent. For
example, stalking or spreading false information about someone can be aggressive
but are not violent acts.
• Hostile and Instrumental Aggression
According to Bartol and Bartol (2017), aggression can be categorized into two types based on their goals:
hostile and instrumental aggression.

• Hostile Aggression:

Also called expressive aggression, this occurs as a reaction to anger-inducing situations, such as insults,
physical attacks, or personal failures. The primary goal is to make the victim suffer.
Examples include criminal homicides, rapes, and violent acts intended to harm the [Link] is often
fueled by intense emotions like anger, which can result from frustration or provocation.
• Instrumental Aggression:

This type of aggression is motivated by the desire to achieve a specific goal, such as acquiring valuables,
status, or territory. The intent is not necessarily to harm, but harm may occur if someone interferes with
the aggressor’s objective.
Common examples include robbery, theft, and certain calculated crimes like hired killings.

Aggression, as a simple and direct method of conflict resolution, can be influenced by diminished social
forms of agression
• Reactive and Proactive Aggression
Dodge and colleagues identified another classification: reactive aggression and proactive aggression.
• Reactive Aggression:
Often impulsive or "hot-blooded,"
it includes anger outbursts, temper tantrums, and vengeful hostility. It is linked to poor impulse control
and may arise from frustration or provocation.
Youth exposed to violence may develop reactive aggression due to heightened anxiety and difficulty
regulating emotions, becoming hypervigilant to perceived threats.
Subtypes:
Internal Frustration: Aggression stemming from personal failure or unmet goals.
Provocation: Aggression triggered by direct external threats

• Proactive Aggression:
Also known as "cool-blooded" aggression, it involves deliberate actions like bullying, teasing, and coercion
aimed at achieving rewards or control.
It is calculated and unprovoked, driven by the expectation of benefits.
Found in behaviors modeled after aggressive role models or those valuing aggression to achieve goals.
What is GAM?
The General Aggression Model (GAM) was developed by DeWall and Anderson to explain
aggression and violence.
It combines various factors like biology, personality, social environment, thinking processes, and
decision-making to understand why aggression happens. The model is based on ideas from social-
cognitive and social learning theories.
How GAM Works
Proximate Processes:
Immediate factors like a person’s traits and the situation affect their thoughts, emotions, and
physical [Link] influence how they assess the situation and decide to act aggressively or not.
Distal Processes:
Long-term influences, such as biological traits or repeated exposure to certain environments,
shape personality and aggression patterns.
Inputs to Aggression
Two main inputs determine aggression:
Personal Factors: Traits like being naturally aggressive, gender, or attitudes about violence.
Situational Factors: External influences like alcohol, violent media, provocation, or hot
Routes to Aggression
Aggression can happen through three main pathways:
1. Angry Feelings.
2. Aggressive Thoughts.
3. Physiological Arousal
(e.g., increased heart rate or blood pressure).

These factors interact and lead to either aggression or self-control.

Examples
High temperatures can make people angry, provoke aggressive thoughts, and
increase arousal (like faster heartbeat). This can lead to misinterpreting
frustration as anger, resulting in aggression.
A small conflict, like a bump in a crowded bar, can escalate into violence if
provocation is misinterpreted.
What is Violence?
• Violence is using physical force to harm someone, either intentionally or
unintentionally (Jacquin, n.d.).
• It is common worldwide and affects all age groups, though it is most frequent
among older teens and young adults.
Effects of Violence
• Violence impacts individuals, families, and communities.
• It can cause fear, disrupt communities, damage reputations, and lower property
values.
• Children are particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of violence.

Types of Violent Crimes

• Expressive Violence: Acts done out of anger or frustration.
• Instrumental Violence: Violence used to gain something, like money or status (e.g.,
robbery or hired killings).
Causes of Violence
1. Mental Health

• Many violent individuals suffer from mental illnesses like paranoia, hallucinations, low
intelligence, or psychological disorders.
• Some killers, especially children, show signs of neurological problems or mental abnormalities.

[Link] Differences
• Studies show differences in the limbic system and prefrontal cortex of violent individuals.
These brain areas control emotions and decision-making.

3. Animal Cruelty Link

• People who harm animals as children are more likely to engage in violence later. This behavior
is linked to disorders like antisocial personality disorder.
Human Instinct
• According to Freud, humans have two instincts:
• Eros (Life Instinct): Drives self-fulfillment and enjoyment.
• Thanatos (Death Instinct): Leads to destruction, which may be directed outward as violence or inward as self-harm.
Substance Abuse
• Drugs and alcohol increase the likelihood of violence:
• Psychopharmacological Relationship: Substances like alcohol impair judgment, leading to miscommunication and conflict.
• Economic Compulsive Behavior: Addicts may commit crimes to afford drugs.
• Systematic Link: Drug-dealing gangs often use violence to control territories and resolve conflicts.
Socialization and Upbringing
• Poor parenting, physical abuse, and inconsistent discipline contribute to violent behavior.
• Children who grow up without proper supervision or in abusive homes are more likely to be violent.
Exposure to Violence
• Living in violent environments can desensitize people and make them adopt violent behaviors.
• Communities with high crime rates and distrust in law enforcement often experience more violence.
Cultural Values
• Some subcultures, especially in poor, disorganized areas, see violence as a way to solve problems.
• Violence becomes normalized in these settings due to cultural beliefs and norms.
Personal Traits
• Personality traits like aggression, impulsivity, dishonesty, and lack of remorse are linked to violence.
Causes of Violence
Criminologists have different views on what causes violence. Some believe it's linked to human
traits, while others think it’s due to improper socialization or cultural influences. Violence often
occurs not only from strangers but also within families, intimate relationships, and among children.
It’s important to study violence to find ways to reduce or prevent it.

Violence is multi-causal, meaning many factors contribute. These include:

• Genetic factors (e.g., predisposition to aggression).
• Neurochemical issues (e.g., high testosterone).
• Personality traits (e.g., lack of empathy).
• Experiences of abuse or neglect in childhood.

Effects of Violence: Violence negatively impacts those who experience or witness it. This can result
in:
• Physical injuries and psychological harm, such as depression, anxiety, and PTSD.
• Children are especially vulnerable, developing issues like anxiety, poor social skills, and behavioral
problems.
• Social Learning Theory suggests that children learn aggressive behavior by observing violence in
their environment, especially at home.
Individual Differences and Violence:
Violent individuals often lack emotional control and empathy. This can lead to
behaviors like impulsivity, aggressiveness, and lack of trust. Psychological traits like
psychopathy (lack of empathy, impulsiveness) are linked to violent behavior.

Family Violence:
The Family Violence Perspective emphasizes that family violence is not just caused
by men but by both men and women. Stress, societal acceptance of violence, and
the intergenerational transmission of violence (where children learn violence from
their parents) contribute to family violence.

Workplace Violence:
Workplace violence is a significant cause of injury and death. It is often linked to
stressors such as job loss, poor management, and even personal issues (e.g.,
rejected romantic advances). Workers who feel mistreated or threatened may react