Colligative Properties,

Molecular Weight
Determination, and Tonicity
 Equivalent Weights

• Equivalent weight is the mass of a substance that will react with 1 mole of
a reference substance.
• Formula:

where n is the valence of the substance.

• Example:
For HCl, molar mass = 36.46 g/mol, n = 1 → equivalent weight = 36.46 g.
 Ideal & Real Solutions

•Ideal solutions: Solution that follows Raoult’s Law,

meaning its properties depend only on the concentration
of solutes, and there are no interactions (attractive or
repulsive) between solute and solvent molecules beyond
simple mixing.

•Real solutions: deviate from raoult’s law due to

molecular interactions because interactions between
molecules cause deviations.
 Colligative Properties
• The physical properties of substances can be classified as colligative,
additive, and constitutive.
Colligative Properties are properties that depend on the number of solute
particles, not their identity.

1.Lowering of vapor pressure

2.Elevation of boiling point
3.Depression of freezing point
4.Osmotic pressure
 Lowering Of Vapor Pressure
• Vapor pressure decreases when a non-volatile(WHY?) solute is added to a
solvent.
Raoult’s law:

Ex. effect of adding sugar to water.

Effect of solute concentration: Higher solute concentration = lower vapor
pressure.

Q Calculate the vapor pressure when 0.5 mole of sucrose is added to 1000 g of
water at 20◦C. The vapor pressure of water at 20◦C is 17.54 mmhg.
Figure: Vapor Pressure Curve Of Pure
Solvent Vs. Solution.
 Elevation Of Boiling Point
ΔTb = i x Kb x m
• m is the molality

• Kb is the boiling point elevation

constant( ebullioscopic constant )

• i is the van’t hoff factor(a measure of the

degree of dissociation or association of a
solute in a solution)

• Boiling point increases when a solute is

added.
 Depression Of Freezing Point

where m is molality and Kf is the cryoscopic

constant*.
• Freezing point decreases when a solute is
added.
• Ex. use of salt to melt ice.
• *The cryoscopic constant (kf) is a thermodynamic constant that relates
molality to freezing point depression.
 Osmotic Pressure

• π is osmotic pressure
• M is molarity
• R is the gas constant (0.0821 L·atm/mol·K)
• T is temperature
• Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop
osmosis : the minimum pressure required to prevent
osmosis, the movement of solvent molecules through a
semipermeable membrane from a region of lower solute
concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.
 Molecular Weight Determination
• Colligative properties of solutions offer a straightforward method for determining
the molecular weight of various compounds. These properties solely depend on the
number of solute molecules present, making this approach particularly useful for
calculating the molar masses of complex molecules, proteins, macromolecules, and
polymers.
• Ex. using freezing point depression to determine molecular weight of a compound.
• we prepare a solution with a known concentration of the substance in a solvent. We
know the boiling point, freezing point, or vapour pressure of the solvent. We select
the property to measure based on its simplicity and stability under the given
conditions.
 Molecular Weight Determination
• Example: A chemist dissolves 2.00 g of an unknown non-volatile solute in 50.0 g of benzene. The
freezing point of pure benzene is 5.53°C, but the solution freezes at 3.92°c. The freezing point
depression constant (Kf​) for benzene is 5.12°c·kg/mol. Determine the molecular weight of the solute.
• Solution : ΔTf = 5.53°c−3.92°c =1.61°c
• Solve for molality by rearrange the equation m = ΔTf /Kf = 1.61/5.12 = 0.3144 mol/kg
• Calculate moles of solute
• Molality (m) is defined as:
• m=moles of solute / kg of solvent ,​rearrange to solve for moles of solute:
• Moles of solute= m × kg of solvent ,since 50.0 g = 0.0500 kg of benzene,
• Moles of solute=0.3144 ×0.0500 = 0.01572 moles
• Molecular weight (M) is:
• M=mass of solute (g) / moles of solute
• M = 2.00 / 0.01572=127.3 g/mol
 Colligative Properties of Solutions

Colligative properties of electrolytes can be obtained by modifying

equations with the van’t hoff factor (i).
Factor represent the number of ions generated per molecule.
 Solutions Of Electrolytes
•Electrolytes dissociate into ions,
increasing the number of particles in
solution and thus affecting colligative
properties.
•Ex.Sodium chloride in water vs. sugar in
water.

In concentrated solutions, deviations

from ideal behavior are observed due to
strong ion-ion interactions.
Ex. High concentration of NaCl showing
less than expected depression in freezing
point.
 Colligative Properties Of
Electrolytes Vs. Nonelectrolytes

• Comparison
 Buffered And Isotonic Solutions

• Tonicity refers to the osmotic pressure difference between two solutions.

• Types: isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic.
• Preparation of isotonic solutions is important because liquid drug delivery
systems must be isotonic with body fluids.
• Sodium chloride and dextrose most common agents to adjust product tonicity.
 Sodium chloride equivalent (E) method

• Used in pharmacy to determine how much of a particular drug will produce the same
osmotic pressure as a given amount of sodium chloride (NaCl) solution.
• Osmotic pressure refers to the pressure exerted by a solution when it is separated
from pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane.
• When preparing injectable medications, it's important to ensure the drug's solution is
isotonic (has the same osmotic pressure as body fluids) to avoid tissue damage.
 Sodium chloride equivalent (E) method

• Isotonic: A solution is isotonic when it has the same osmotic pressure as

body fluids, meaning it won't cause cells to shrink or swell. The standard
for isotonic solutions in medicine is a 0.9% NaCl solution, which is
equivalent to 0.9 grams of NaCl dissolved in 100 milliliters of water.
• The sodium chloride equivalent (E) is a numerical value that
represents how much sodium chloride (NaCl) would be required to create
the same osmotic pressure as a unit of a given drug. In other words, it’s a
way of comparing the osmotic effect of a drug to that of NaCl.
 Sodium chloride equivalent (E) method

• E is defined as the weight of NaCl that exerts the same osmotic pressure
as 1 gram of the drug.
• For a drug that is being dissolved in solution, the e-value tells you how much
sodium chloride would be needed to make the solution isotonic. If you have a
drug with a specific e-value, you can use it to adjust the drug's solution so that it
will be isotonic with body fluids.
 Sodium chloride equivalent (E) method
• Ex. Let’s say you have a drug with an e-value of 0.5.
• To make a 1% solution of this drug isotonic (i.E., To match the osmotic pressure of
0.9% nacl), you would calculate how much NaCl would be required for the
equivalent osmotic pressure.
• Formula: the formula for preparing an isotonic solution using the e-value is:
• Amount of NaCl required (g) = e-value × amount of drug (g)
• if you are preparing a solution of 1 gram of the drug, and the e-value of the drug is
0.5, the amount of NaCl required would be 0.5 ×1= 0.5 grams of NaCl
 D1% Method
• A way to determine the concentration of a drug needed to create an isotonic solution
based on the freezing point depression.
• The required freezing point depression for a solution to be isotonic with body
fluids is 0.52°c. This is the point at which the solution will have the same osmotic
pressure as the body's fluids.
• The D1% value represents the freezing point depression caused by a drug when the
solution’s concentration is 1% w/v, it tells you how much the freezing point is lowered
when you dissolve 1 gram of the drug in 100 ml of water.
• Ex. if the D1% = 0.3°C, it means that a 1% w/v solution of that drug will cause a
freezing point depression of 0.3°c. This value is key to determining how much of the
drug you need to add to make the solution isotonic (with a depression of 0.52°c).
 D1% Method
1.Find the D1% value for the drug: look up the freezing point depression for a 1%
w/v solution of the drug. This value is typically given in °C.
2.Determine the desired freezing point depression for isotonicity: the goal is to
achieve a freezing point depression of 0.52°C to make the solution isotonic with
body fluids.
3.Calculate the required drug concentration: using the D1% value, you can
calculate how much of the drug you need to add to achieve the desired freezing
point depression of 0.52°c.
 D1% Method

• Drug concentration = 0.52°c / D1% value ,where:

• 0.52°C is the freezing point depression required for isotonicity.
• D1% value is the freezing point depression caused by a 1% w/v solution of the drug.
• Ex. If D1% value for a drug is 0.3°c.
• Drug concentration = 0.52°C / 0.3°C = 1.73% w/v
• so, you would need to make a 1.73% w/v solution of the drug to achieve isotonicity.
 The Liso Method

• The term Liso refers to the molal concentration of a drug that, when
dissolved in water, causes a freezing point depression of 0.52°c. In other
words, it is the specific molal concentration of a drug that will create an
isotonic solution with body fluids.
• The value of Liso is defined as the value of iKf when the freezing point
depression is 0.52°c. Essentially, it tells you how much of a drug is needed in
molal terms (mol of drug per kg of solvent) to produce the desired freezing
point depression of 0.52°c.
• Freezing point depression equation
 The Liso Method
• To achieve isotonicity, ΔTf = 0.52°C, so: 0.52°C= i× 1.86°C⋅kg/mol × m
• rearranging the equation m=0.52°C/(i×1.86°c⋅kg/mol)
• The Liso value is the molality (m) required for isotonicity. The Liso value is essentially
the molal concentration that gives a freezing point depression of 0.52°C for a drug,
so it is equivalent to m when ΔTf = 0.52°C.
• Thus, Liso is the molality required to produce the isotonic freezing point
depression of 0.52°c.
• Ex. Drug with i value of 1 (it doesn’t dissociate) ,determine its Liso value.

• Liso value = 0.28 mol/kg. means that to achieve an isotonic solution with a freezing
point depression of 0.52°C, you need to dissolve 0.28 mol of the drug in 1 kg of water.