Chapter Four-Motivation
Admas University
MBA/MAPM
Outline
4.1. What is motivation?
4.2. Early Theories of Motivation
4.3. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
4.4. Implication Motivation for performance,
satisfaction
4.1.What Is Motivation?
• Motivation
– Is the process by which a person’s efforts are energized,
directed, and persistent towards attaining a goal.
Key
KeyElements:-
Elements:-
1.1. Energy:
Energy:aameasure
measureof
ofintensity
intensityor
ordrive
drive
2.2. Direction:
Direction:toward
towardorganizational
organizationalgoal
goal
3.3. Persistence:
Persistence:how
howlong
longaaperson
persontries
tries
– is “a process of stimulating people to action or accomplish
desired goals”
– Motivation can be classified on several bases.
…..Cont’d
On the basis of approach, motivation can be classified as
positive or negative
Positive Motivation Negative Motivation
• involves creating a sense of fear or
• implies creation of an unhelpful environment.
environment in which people
can satisfy their needs and
aspirations. • Workers who do not perform well are
• Under it rewards and incentives penalized.
are offered to inspire
employees. All necessary
facilities are provided to • Negative motivation creates
workers. They are offered detachment between the individuals
and the organization and lack of
prizes and awards for best
integrity to the purpose.
performance.
• Negative motivation is based on
pessimistic view which holds that
• Positive motivation removes only fear of punishment will force
the psychological barrier and employees to improve their
develops a sense of affiliation. performance.
…..Cont’d
On the basis of the type of incentives used , motivation may
be Financial or Non financial
Financial Motivation Non Financial Motivation
• implies use of monetary are not associated with monetary
rewards.
benefits to inspire These include
employees. • recognition of work done,
• greater involvement in decision-
making,
• include wages and • responsibility, challenging job
salaries, bonus, fringe assignments, etc.
benefits, retirement • Praise, knowledge of results,
suggestion system, and
benefits, etc., opportunity for growth are other
important non-financial
motivators.
…..Cont’d
On the basis of the nature of reward used, motivation may be
Extrinsic or Intrinsic
Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation
• Extrinsic motivators do not • Intrinsic motivation occurs
occur on the job but around
on the job and provides
the job.
satisfaction while the job is
• These factors include pay being performed.
allowances, bonus, and fringe
benefits.
• Extrinsic reward may be direct • Intrinsic or internal
which are linked with motivators include status,
performance and indirect authority, participation,
compensation like free challenging task etc.,
housing, medical facilities, variety of work, freedom for
etc.,
discretion, greater
• Generally direct compensation responsibility opportunity
is more effective motivator for advancement are also
intrinsic rewards.
4.2.Early Theories of Motivation
(Need Based/ Content Theories of Motivation-explain why
people have different needs at different times
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
– Each individual has needs, or feelings of deficiency that drive
their behavior
– Once a need is satisfied, then it is no longer motivating
• Satisfied(substantially) needs will no longer motivate.
– Needs are in a hierarchy that an individual moves up as they
satisfy levels of needs
– Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before they can satisfy higher order
needs.
– Motivating a person depends on knowing at what level that person is on the
hierarchy---And, focus on satisfying needs at or above that level .
– Hierarchy of Needs were categorized as five levels => lower- to
higher-order needs.
• Lower-order : physiological, safety
• Higher-order : social, esteem, self-actualization
Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Level of needs
Physiological/Survival needs- Food, Clothing,
Shelter, Air
Security- Feel safe, absence of pain, threat, or
illness etx
Affiliation- friendship, love, belongingness
Esteem Needs- self-respect, achievement,
recognition, prestige
Self-Actualization- personal growth, self-
fulfillment, realization of full potential
• Where are YOU on the hierarchy???
Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
ERG Theory of Motivation(Alderfer’s)
Identified three basic needs of human being against five needs of Maslow.
• Consolidates Maslow into 3 categories
E-Existence need-are desires for physiological and material well-being.
In terms of Maslow’s model, existence needs include physiological and safety
needs
R-Relatedness -are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
In terms of Maslow’s model, relatedness correspondence to social needs
G-Growth-are desires for continued psychological growth and
development.
In terms of Maslow’s model, growth needs include esteem and self-realization
needs
Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)…..ERG
Model of Motivation
Frustration-Regression Satisfaction-Progression
Frustration-
Growth Needs
Regression-ERG
Differs from
Maslow:-
When unable to Relatedness Needs
satisfy upper
level needs, the
individual will
revert to satisfying
lower level needs
Existence Needs
Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
• McGregor proposed two assumptions about human nature
Theory X-Negative view of people
Assumes that employees dislike
work, lack ambition, avoid
responsibility, and must be directed
and coerced to perform.
Theory Y-Positive view of people
Assumes that employees like work,
seek responsibility, are capable of
making decisions, and exercise self-
direction and self-control when
committed to a goal.
Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Having Little Ambition
Theory X Disliking Work
Managers See Workers As…
Avoiding Responsibility
Self-Directed
Theory Y Enjoying Work
Managers See Workers As…
Accepting Responsibility
• Assumption:- McGregor believed that Theory Y assumptions better captured the
true nature of workers and should guide management practice.
• Hence, he proposed that, Motivation is maximized by participative decision
making, interesting jobs, and good group relations
Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory(Two Factor Theory)
– Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by different factors.
– In doing so, Herzberg asked people for detailed descriptions of situations in which they felt
exceptionally good or bad about their jobs & found as below
• Hygiene factors: extrinsic factors that create job dissatisfaction.
• work condition related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
• maintenance factor, contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied; contributes to absence of
complaint
• Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job satisfaction.
• work condition related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth
• when present cause high levels of motivation, eg,Interesting work, advancement, growth, etc
Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory(Cont’d)
• Herzberg’s also suggest that removing dissatisfying characteristics from a
job would not necessarily make that job more satisfying (or motivating).
• The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction;
and the opposite of "dissatisfaction" is "no dissatisfaction”
• Hence, managers who sought to eliminate factors that created job
dissatisfaction could bring about workplace harmony but not necessarily
motivation.
• To motivate people on their jobs, Herzberg suggested emphasizing
motivators, the intrinsic factors that increase job satisfaction.
Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
High
Motivation
Low Motivation
Low Dissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction
Low High Low High
Hygienes Motivators
Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
Three-Needs Theory (David McClelland)
Needs are acquired through interaction with environment
Not a hierarchy, but degrees of each type of need or motive
• =>There are three major acquired needs that are major motives in work
Need for Affiliation(nAff)
Need for Achievement (nAch) The desire for friendly and
The drive to excel, to achieve close interpersonal
in relation to a set of nPow
relationships.
standards, to strive to
succeed.
Need for Power(nPow)
nAch nAff
The need to influence the
behavior of others.
Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
Maslow’s Alderfer’s Herzberg’s McClelland’s
Need Hierarchy ERG Theory Theory Learned Needs
Self- Need for
Actualization Achievement
Growth Motivators
Need for
Esteem
Power
Need for
Belongingness Relatedness
Affiliation
Safety Hygienes
Existence
Physiological
4.3. Contemporary Theories of Motivation=>Process
theories-describe the processes through which needs
are translated into behavior
• Goal-Setting Theory(E. Locke)
– Assignment of specific, moderately difficult, and providing feedback will provide
motivation to work
– Proposes that setting goals that are accepted, specific, and challenging yet
achievable will result in higher performance than having no or easy goals
• Benefits of Participation in Goal-Setting
– Increases the acceptance of goals. Fosters commitment to difficult, public goals.
– Provides for self-feedback (internal locus of control) that guides behavior and motivates
performance (self-efficacy).
• Overall conclusion: the intention to work toward hard and specific goals is a powerful
motivating force.
Effect of Goal Difficulty on
Performance
High
Task Performance
Area of
Optimal
Goal
Difficulty
Low Moderate Challenging Impossible
Goal Difficulty
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
• Reinforcement Theory
– Assumes that a desired behavior is a function of its
consequences , is externally caused, and if reinforced, is
likely to be repeated.
– Recall, Using this theory, managers can influence behavior by:
• Positive reinforcement : increase desired behaviour through reward.
• Negative reinforcement : increase desired behaviour through
eliminate negative consequence
• Extinction: reduce undesired behaviour through eliminating its
reinforcers
• Punishment: reduce undesired behaviour through punishment.
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
• Designing Motivating Jobs( Hackman)
– Job Design- refers to the way into which tasks can be combined to form
complete jobs.
• Factors influencing job design: i) Changing organizational environment/structure; ii)The
organization’s technology; iii)Employees’ skill, abilities, and preferences
– Ways that managers can design motivating jobs”
– Job enlargement- Increasing the job’s scope (number & frequency of tasks)
– Job enrichment- Increasing responsibility and autonomy (depth) in a job.
– Job Characteristics Model (JCM)-A conceptual framework for designing motivating
jobs that create meaningful work experiences that satisfy employees’ growth needs.
• Five primary job characteristics in JCM:
– Skill variety: how many skills and talents are needed?
– Task identity: does the job produce a complete work?
– Task significance: how important is the job?
– Autonomy: how much independence does the jobholder has?
– Feedback: do workers know how well they are doing?
Job Characteristics Model
Source: J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle (eds.). Improving Life at Work (Glenview,
IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977). With permission of the authors.
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory(J. Stacey Adams)
• Proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes)
in relation to what they put in (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes
ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others.
• If the ratios are perceived as equal then a state of equity (fairness) exists.
• If the ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity exists and the person feels under- or
over-rewarded.
• => When inequities occur, employees will attempt to do something to rebalance
the ratios (seek justice).
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory (cont’d)
• Employees responses to perceived inequities :-
• 1)Distort own or others’ ratios; 2)Induce others to change their own inputs or
outcomes.3)Change own inputs (increase or decrease efforts) or outcomes (seek
greater rewards);4) Choose a different comparison person (referent) other (person,
systems, or self).5) Quit their job.
• Employees are concerned with both the absolute and relative nature of
organizational rewards.
• Equity theory focus on both :
• Distributive justice- The perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of
rewards among individuals (i.e., who received what).
• Influences an employee’s satisfaction.
• Procedural justice-The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the
distribution of rewards (i.e., how who received what).
• Affects an employee’s organizational commitment.
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
• Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
– States that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the
expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
– Expectancy relationships-include three variables as below
– Key to the theory is understanding and managing employee goals and the
linkages among and between effort(employee abilities), performance (valid
appraisal system) and rewards (understanding employee needs).
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory (Cont’d)
Expectancy relationships-include
• 1)Expectancy(effort-performance relationship)
• The perceived probability that an individual’s effort will result in a
certain level of performance
• “If I work hard, will I get the job done?”
• 2) Instrumentality(performance-reward relationship)-
• The perception that a particular level of performance will result in the
attaining a desired outcome (reward). It is level of trust in truthiness of the
reward
• “What rewards will I get when the job is well done?”
• 3)Valence/Attractiveness of reward(Reward-Individual goal relationship)
• The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward (outcome) to
the individual- “What rewards do I value?”
4.4. Implication motivation for
performance & satisfaction
Generally, Importance of Motivation incude:-
• High level of performance
• Low employee turnover and absenteeism
• Acceptance of organization change.
The implication of motivation theories for explaining /predicting
productivity, absenteeism, turnover, satisfaction and other outcomes
are documented as below
Implication motivation for
performance & satisfaction
Needs Theory
• Maslow’s hierarchy, the motivator-hygiene factors and , McClelland’s needs
theory focus on needs.
• None has found widespread support, although McClelland’s is the strongest,
particularly regarding the relationship between achievement and productivity.
.
Goal-setting theory
• Clear and difficult goals lead to higher levels of employee productivity, supporting
goal-setting theory’s explanation of this dependent variable.
• The theory does not address absenteeism, turnover, or satisfaction, however.
Reinforcement theory
• This theory has an impressive record predicting quality and quantity of work,
persistence of effort, absenteeism and tardiness.
• It does not offer much insight employee satisfaction or the decision to quit.
Implication motivation for
performance & satisfaction
. Designing Job design
• Design motivating job offers explanations for performance, satisfaction, turnover
and absenteeism
Equity theory
• Equity theory deals with productivity, satisfaction, absence, and turnover
variables.
Expectancy theory
• Expectancy theory offers a powerful explanation of outcome variables such as
employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.
