Physical Science

Nuclear
Lecture 7:

Physics

Environmental Health Dept MTS

L. Masutso
MTS. All rights reserved. 7|1
 Nuclear Physics

• The characteristics of the atomic nucleus are

important to our modern society.
• Diagnosis and treatment of cancer and other
diseases
• Geological and archeological dating
• Chemical analysis
• Nuclear energy and nuclear diposal
• Formation of new elements
• Radiation of solar energy
• Household smoke detector

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 Early Thoughts about Elements

• The Greek philosophers (600 – 200

B.C.) were the first people to speculate
about the basic substances of matter.
• Aristotle speculated that all matter on
earth is composed of only four
elements: earth, air, fire, and water.
• He was wrong on all counts!

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 Symbols of the Elements

• Swedish
chemist, Jons
Jakob Berzelius
(early 1800’s)
used one or two
letters of the
Latin name to
designate each
element.

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 Symbols of the Elements

• Since Berzelius’ time most elements

have been symbolized by the first one
or two letters of the English name.
• YOU are expected to know the names
and symbols of the 45 elements listed
on Table 10.2.

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 Names and Symbols of Common Elements

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 The Atom

• All matter is composed of atoms.

• An atom is composed of three subatomic
particles: electrons (-), protons (+), and
neutrons (0)
• The nucleus of the atom contains the protons
and the neutrons (also called nucleons.)
• The electrons surround (orbit) the nucleus.
• Electrons and protons have equal but
opposite charges.

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 Major Constituents of an Atom

U=unified atomic mass units

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 The Atomic Nucleus

• Protons and neutrons have nearly the

same mass and are 2000 times more
massive than an electron.
• Discovery – Electron (J.J. Thomson in
1897), Proton (Ernest Rutherford in
1918), and Neutron (James Chadwick
in 1932)

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 Rutherford's Alpha-Scattering Experiment
• J.J. Thomson’s “plum pudding” model predicted the
alpha particles would pass through the evenly
distributed positive charges in the gold atoms.

 particle = helium nucleus

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 Rutherford's Alpha-Scattering Experiment

• Only 1 out of 20,000 alpha particles

bounced back.
• Rutherford could only explain this by
assuming that each gold atom had its
positive charge concentrated in a very
small “nucleus.”
• Diameter of nucleus = about 10-14 m
• Electron orbit diameter = about 10-10 m
• Atomic Mass is concentrated in the
nucleus (>99.97%)
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 Atomic Mass is Concentrated in the
Nucleus!
• Therefore the volume (or size) of an
atom is determined by the orbiting
electrons.
– The diameter of an atom is approximately
10,000 times the diameter of the nucleus.
• If only nuclear material (protons and
neutrons) could be closely packed into
a sphere the size of a ping-pong ball it
would have the incredible mass of 2.5
billion metric tons!

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 Visual
Representation of
a Nucleus

• Tightly Packed
Protons and
Neutrons

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 Atomic Designations
• Atomic Number (Z) – the # of protons in the
nucleus (“defines” the element – the # of
protons is always the same for a given
element)
• Atomic Number also designates the number
of electrons in an element.
• If an element either gains or loses electrons,
the resulting particle is called and ion.
• For example, if a sodium atom (Na) loses an
electron it becomes a sodium ion (Na+.)
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 More Atomic Designations
• Mass Number (A) – protons + neutrons, or
the total number of nucleons
• Isotope – when the number of neutrons vary
in the nucleus of a given element (always
same number of protons)
• Only 112 elements are known, but the total
number of isotopes is about 2000.

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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.2 10 | 16
 Isotopes
• Some elements have several isotopes
(like carbon –12C, 13C, 14C)
• Isotopes of a single element have the
‘same’ chemical properties (due to same
number of electrons), but they have
different masses (due to varying number
of neutrons.)
• Due to their various masses isotopes
behave slightly different during reactions.

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 Carbon Isotopes - Example

Protons Neutrons Mass #

Symbol
(Z) (N) (A)
12
C 6 6 12

13
C 6 7 13

14
C 6 8 14

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 Three Isotopes of Hydrogen

In naturally occurring Hydrogen - 1 atom in 6000 is

deuterium and 1 in 10,000,000 is tritium. Heavy water = D2O
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 Common
Isotopes of
some of the
Lighter
Elements

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 Determining the Composition of an Atom

• Determine the number of protons, electrons,

and neutrons in the fluorine atom 199 F
• Atomic Number (Z) = 9
•  protons = 9 & electrons = 9
• Mass Number (A) = 19
• A = N + Z {N = Neutron Number}
•  N = A – Z = 19 – 9 = 10
• neutrons = 10

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 Atomic Review

• Protons & Neutrons – in nucleus

• Electrons – orbit around nucleus
• Mass Number (A) = protons + neutrons
• Atomic Number (Z) = # of protons
• Neutron Number (N) = # of neutrons
• Isotope – an element with different # of
neutrons (same # of protons)

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 Atomic Mass

• The weighted average mass of an atom of

the element in a naturally occurring sample
• The Atomic Mass is measured in unified
atomic mass units (u) – basically the weight
of a proton or neutron.
• The 12C atom is used as the standard, and is
assigned the Atomic Mass of exactly 12 u.
• The weighted average mass of all carbon is
slightly higher than 12 (12.011) because
some is 13C and 14C.

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Schematic Drawing of a Mass Spectrometer

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The ion with the greatest mass is deflected the least, the ion
with the least mass is deflected the most.
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 A Mass Spectrogram
Showing the Three Isotopes of Neon and their relative
abundances

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 Calculating an Element’s Atomic Mass
• Naturally occurring chlorine is a mixture
consisting of 75.77% 35Cl (atomic mass =
34.97 u) and 24.23% 37Cl (atomic mass =
36.97 u). Calculate the atomic mass for the
element chlorine.
• Calculate the contribution of each Cl isotope.
• 0.7577 x 34.97 u = 26.50 u (35Cl)
• 0.2423 x 36.97 u = 8.96 u (37Cl)
• Total = 35.46 u = Atomic Mass for Cl

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 Fundamental Forces of Nature - Review
• We have previously discussed two
fundamental forces of nature – gravitational
and electromagnetic.
• The electromagnetic force between a proton
(+) and an electron (-) is 1039 greater than
the gravitational forces between the two
particles.
• Therefore the electromagnetic forces are
the only important forces on electrons and
are responsible for the structure of atoms,
molecules and all matter in general.

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 The (Strong) Nuclear Force

• Remember that the nucleus of any atom is

extremely small and packed with a
combination of neutrons and protons (+.)
• According to Coulomb’s Law like charges
repel each other. Therefore the repulsive
forces in a nucleus are huge and the nucleus
should fly apart.
• There must exist a third fundamental force
that somehow holds the nucleus together.
• For a large nucleus the forces are
complicated.

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 Large Nucleus & the Nuclear Force
• An individual proton is only attracted by the 6 or 7 closest
nucleons, but is repelled by all the other protons.
• When the # of protons exceeds 83, the electrical repulsion
overcomes the nuclear force, and the nucleus is unstable.
• Spontaneous
disintegration or
decay occurs to
adjust for the neutron-
proton imbalance.

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 Standard Model

• Physicists have also identified a weak

nuclear force within an atom.
– This is a short-range force that reveals
itself principally in beta decay.
• Physicists have organized three of the
known atomic forces (electromagnetic,
weak nuclear, and strong nuclear) into a
single unifying theory called the
standard model.

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 Atomic Review
• Mass Number (A) – protons + neutrons,
or the total number of nucleons
• Isotope – when the number of neutrons
vary in the nucleus of a given element
(always same number of protons)
• Atomic Number (Z) – number of protons

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 Radioactivity

• Radioactivity (radioactive decay) – the

spontaneous process of nuclei undergoing a
change by emitting particles or rays
• Nuclide – a specific type of nucleus 238U or 14C
• Radionuclides (radioactive isotopes or
radioisotopes) – nuclides whose nuclei
undergo spontaneous decay (disintegration)
• Substances that give off such radiation are
said to be radioactive

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 Radioactive Decay

• Parent nucleus – the original nucleus

before decay
• Daughter nucleus (or daughter product)
– the resulting nucleus after decay
• Radioactive nuclei can decay
(disintegrate) in three common ways
– Alpha decay
– Beta decay
– Gamma decay
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 Radioactive Decay (disintegration)

• Alpha decay – disintegration of a nucleus

into a nucleus of another element, w/ the
emission of an alpha particle () - a helium
nucleus (4He)
2
• Beta decay – a neutron is transformed
into a proton, w/ the emission of a beta
particle () – an electron ( 0e)
-1
• Gamma decay – occurs when a nucleus
emits a gamma ray () and becomes a
less energetic form of the same nucleus

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 Three Components of Radiation
from Radionuclides
Alpha(), Beta(), Gamma()

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 Nuclear Decay Equations - Examples

• Alpha decay = 232Th  228Ra + 4He

90 88 2

• Beta decay = 14C  14N + 0e

6 7 -1

• Gamma decay = 204Pb*  204Pb + 

82 82
• In a nuclear decay equation, the sums of
the mass numbers (A) and the sums of
the atomic numbers (Z) will be the
equivalent on each side

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 The Products of Alpha Decay – Example
• U undergoes alpha decay. Write the equation
238
92
for the process
• 238 U  ?
92
• 238
U  _??_ + 4He
92 2
• 238
U  _234_ + 4He
92 90 2
• Must determine the mass number (A), the
atomic number (Z), and the chemical symbol
for the daughter product
• 238 U  _234Th_ + 4He
92 90 2

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 Five Common Forms of Nuclear Radiations

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 Decay Series of Uranium-238 to Lead-206

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 Identifying Radionuclides

• Which nuclides are unstable (radioactive)

and which are stable?
• An interesting pattern emerges:
– Most stable nuclides have an even number of
both protons and neutrons (even-even nuclides)
– Most unstable nuclides have an odd number of
both protons and neutrons (odd-odd nuclides)
• A nuclide will be radioactive if:
– Its atomic number (Z) is > than 83
– n<p (except for 1H and 3He)
1 2
– It is an odd-odd nuclide (except for 2H, 6Li, 10B, 14N)
1 3 5 7

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 Identifying Radionuclides - Example

• Identify the radionuclide in each pair,

and state your reasoning.
a) 208Pb and 222Rn • Z above 83
82 86

b) 19Ne and 20Ne • fewer n than p

10 10

c) 63Cu and 64Cu • odd-odd

29 29

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 The Pairing Effect in Stabilizing Nuclei

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A Plot of Number of Neutrons (N) Versus Number
of Protons (Z) for the Nuclides

• Showing “band of
stability”

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 Half-Life of a Radinuclide

• Half-Life – the time it takes for half of the

nuclei of a given sample to decay
• In other words – after one half-life has
expired, only one-half of the original
amount of radionuclide remains
undecayed
• After 2 half-lives only one-quarter (½ of
½) of the original amount of the
radionuclide remains undecayed

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 Decay of Thorium-234 over Two Half-Lives
Thorium-234 has a Half-Life of 24 days

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Decay Curve
for Any
Radionuclide

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 Half-Lives of Some Radionuclides

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 Finding the Number of Half-Lives
and the Final Amount
• What fraction and mass of a 40 mg sample of
iodine-131 (half-live = 8d) will remain in 24d?
• Step 1 – find the number of half-lives that have
passed in 24 days: 24 days = 3 half-lives
8d/half-life
• Step 2 – Start with the given amount No = 40mg, and half it 3
times (3 half-lives)
– Once  No/2 = 20 mg (after 8 days)
– Twice  No/4 = 10 mg (after 16 days)
– Thrice  No/8 = 5 mg (after 24 days)

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 Finding the Number of Half-Lives and the
Final Amount – Confidence Exercise

• What fraction of Stontium-90 produced in

1963 (half-live = 29y) will remain in 2021?
• Step 1 – find the number of half-lives that have
passed in 58 years: 58 years = 2 half-lives
29y/half-life
• Step 2 – Start with the given amount = No
• After 1 half-life  No/2 = (after 29 years)
• After 2 half-lives  No /4 = (after 58 years)
 One fourth of the original Strontium-90 remains

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 Finding the Elapsed Time

• How long would it take a sample of 14C to

decay to one-fourth its original activity?
(half-live of 14C is 5730 years)
• Solution: No  No/2  No/4  14C would
need to decay for two half-lives in order to
be reduced to ¼ its original activity.
• (2 half-lives)(5730 y/half-life) = 11,460
years

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 Determining the Half-Live of a
Radioactive Isotope (Radionuclide)
• In order to determine the half-life of a
particular radionuclide, we must monitor the
activity of a known amount in the laboratory
• Activity – the rate of emission of the decay
particles (usually in counts per minute, cpm)
• When (time) the initial activity rate has fallen
to one-half – we have reached One Half-Life
• Measured with a Geiger Counter --

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 Geiger Counter

When a high-energy particle from a radioactive

source enters the window it ionizes an argon
atom, giving off a small pulse of current, which
is counted & amplified into the familiar “clicks”

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 Nuclear Reactions

• We know that radioactive nuclei can

spontaneously change into nuclei of other
elements, a process called transmutation.
• Scientists wondered if the reverse was
possible.
• Could a particle (proton or neutron) be added
to a nucleus to change it into another
element?
• The answer is “yes,” and this process is
called a nuclear reaction.

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 Nuclear Reactions

• In 1919 Ernest Rutherford produced the

first nuclear reaction by bombarding 14N
with alpha (4He) particles.
2
• The result was an artificial transmutation
of a nitrogen isotope into an oxygen
isotope.
• 4 He + 14 N  17 O = 1 H
2 7 8 1

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 Nuclear Reaction – General Form
• 4 He + 14 N  17 O = 1 H
2 7 8 1
• Note that the conservation of mass number
and conservation of atomic number holds in
nuclear reactions, just like in nuclear decay.
– 18 = total mass # on each side
– 9 = total atomic # on each side
• The general form for a nuclear reaction is
• a+AB+b
– a is the particle that bombards A to form nucleus B
and emitted particle b

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 Common Particles Encountered
in Nuclear Reactions

• In addition to the particles in the table below,

protons (1H), deuterons (2H),and tritons (3H) are
1 1 1
commonly encountered in nuclear reactions.

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 Completing an Equation for a Nuclear
Reaction – an Example
• Complete the equation for the proton
bombardment of lithium-7.
• 1H + 7Li  ???? + 1n
1 3 0
• Note, the sum of the mass #’s on left = 8.
• The mass # on the right must also = 8, therefore
the missing particle must have a mass # = 7.
• The sum of the atomic #’s on left = 4
• Therefore the sum of the atomic #’s on right must
also equal 4.

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 Completing an Equation for a Nuclear
Reaction – an Example (cont.)
• 1H + 7Li  ???? + 1n
1 3 0
• The missing particle must have an atomic
number = 4
• herefore the missing particle has a mass
number of 7 and an atomic number of 4.
• This element is 74Be (beryllium.)
• Completed equation 
• 1H + 7Li  7Be + 1n
1 3 4 0

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 Confidence Exercise
• Complete the equation for the deuteron
bombardment of aluminum-27
• 2H + 27Al  ???? + 4He
1 13 2
• Note the sum of the mass #’s on left = 29
• The mass # on the right must also = 29,
therefore the missing particle must have a
mass # = 25
• The sum of the atomic #’s on left = 14
• Therefore the sum of the atomic #’s on right
must also equal 14.

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 Confidence Exercise (cont.)
• 2H + 27Al  ???? + 4He
1 13 2
• The missing particle must have an atomic
number = 12
• Therefore the missing particle has a mass
number of 25 and an atomic number of 12.
• This element is 25Mg (magnesium.)
12
• Completed equation 
• 2H + 27Al  25Mg + 4He
1 13 12 2

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 Nuclear Reactions

• Rutherford’s discovery of the

transmutation of 14N into 17O was
actually an accident!
– But the implications of this discovery were
enormous!
• One element could now be changed into
another completely different element!

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 Nuclear Reactions

• The age-old dream of the alchemists had

come true.
– It was now possible to actually make gold
(Au) from other more common elements!
• 1H + 200Hg  197Au + 4He
1 80 79 2
• Unfortunately, the above process to make
gold is VERY expensive.
– About $1,000,000 per ounce!

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 Nuclear Reactions

• Neutrons produced in nuclear reactions can

be used to induce other nuclear reactions.
– Hence, a “chain reaction” is possible.
• Since neutrons have an electrical charge,
they are particularly efficient in penetrating
the nucleus and inducing a reaction.
– Without an electrical charge neutrons are not
influenced by positive and negative atomic
charges.

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 Transuranium Elements
• Transuranium Elements – those with
atomic number greater than 92
– All of these elements are synthetic.
– Created in the lab by bombarding a lighter
nucleus with alpha particles or neutrons
– For Example …
• 1n + 238U  239Np + 0e
0 92 93 -1
• Or …
• 58Fe + 209Bi  266Mt + 1n
26 83 109 0

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 Nucleosynthesis

• H, He, and Li are thought to have

formed in the Big Bang.
• Be up to Fe were likely made in the
cores of stars by fusion.
• Atoms of heavier then Fe are thought to
have formed during supernova
explosions of stars, when there was an
abundance of neutrons and medium-
sized atoms.
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 Uses of Radionuclides

• Radionuclides have many uses in

medicine, chemistry, biology, geology,
agriculture, and industry.
• One medical use involves a radioactive
isotope of iodine, 123I, it is used in a
diagnostic measurement of the thyroid
gland.
• Americum-241, a synthetic
transuranium radionuclide, is used in
most common home smoke detectors.
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 Smoke Detector
• A weak radioactive source ionizes the air and sets up
a small current. If smoke particles enter, the current
is reduced, causing an alarm.

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 Uses of Radionuclides

• In both chemistry and biology,

radioactive “tracers” (14C & 3H) are used
to “tag” an atom within a molecule.
– In this way the reaction pathways of drugs
& hormones may be determined.
• In geology, the predictable decay rate of
radioactive elements in rocks and
minerals allow age determination.
• In industry, tracer radionuclides help
manufacturers test durability.
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 Nuclear Fission
• Fission – the process in which a large nucleus
“splits” into two intermediate-size nuclei
– With the emission of neutrons and …
– The conversion of mass into energy
• For example, 236U fissions into two smaller nuclei,
emits several neutrons, and releases energy.

• 236
U  140Xe + 94Sr + 1n
92 54 38 0
• Or …
• 236U  132Sn + 101Mo + 3 1n
92 50 42 0
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 Completing the Equation for Fission
an Example
• Complete the following equation for fission.
• 236
U  88KR + 144Ba +????
92 36 56

• Atomic #’s are balanced, 92 on both sides

• Therefore the atomic # for the unknown is 0.
• Mass #’s are not balanced.
– 236 on the left & 232 on the right
• Therefore 4 additional units of mass are needed on the
right.

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 Completing the Equation for Fission
an Example (cont.)
• 236
U  88KR + 144Ba +????
92 36 56

• The missing particle must have:

– An atomic number of 0
– A mass number of 4
• But no single particle exists with those
properties
• Therefore the missing “particle” is actually 4
neutrons.
• 236U  88KR + 144Ba +4 1n
92 36 56 0

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 Completing the Equation for Fission
Confidence Exercise
• Complete the following equation for fission
• 236
U  88Sr + ???? + 2 1n
92 36 0
• Atomic #’s are not balanced.
– The atomic # for the unknown must be 56.
• Mass #’s are not balanced.
• The mass # for the unknown must be 146.
• The unknown must be 146Ba.
56
• 236
U  88Sr + 146Ba + 2 1n
92 36 56 0

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 Nuclear Fission –
Three Important Features
• The products of fission are always
radioactive.
– Some of the products have half-lives of
thousands of years.
– Nuclear waste disposal problems
• Relatively large amounts of energy are
produced.
• Neutrons are released.

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 Chain Reaction

• In an expanding chain reaction, one initial

reaction triggers a growing number of
subsequent reactions.
• In the case of 236U each fission emits two
neutrons.
– Each of these two neutrons can hit another 235U,
resulting in the fission of two additional 235U nuclei
and the release of energy and four neutrons.
• As the chain expands, the number of
neutrons emitted and the energy output
increases.
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 Fission
• U absorbs a neutron, initially changes into 236U and
235

then immediately undergoes fission, releasing two

neutrons and energy.

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 Chain Reaction

• If all of the emitted

neutrons hit another
235
U nucleus, this
results in an
increasing number
of emitted neutrons,
fission reactions,
and energy release.
• An expanding chain
reaction occurs.

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 Self-Sustaining Chain Reaction
• A steady release of energy can be attained
when each fission event causes only one
more fission event - a self-sustaining chain
reaction
• For a self-sustaining chain reaction to
proceed, the correct amount and
concentration of fissionable material ( 235U)
must be present.
• If there is too much fissionable material
present an expanding chain reaction occurs.
• If there is too little fissionable material present
the chain reaction will stop .
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 77
 Critical Mass

• Critical Mass – the minimum amount of

fissionable material necessary to
sustain a chain reaction
– About 4kg (baseball size) of pure U
235

• Subcritical Mass – no chain reaction

occurs
• Supercritical Mass – an expanding
chain reaction occurs

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 78

 Subcritical and Supercritical Masses

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 79

 Uranium
• Natural uranium contains 99.3% 238U and only
0.7% is the fissionable 235U isotope.
• Therefore, the 235U must be concentrated or
“enriched” in order to create either a self-
sustaining or expanding chain reaction.
• In U.S. nuclear reactors the 235U has been
enriched to about 3%, enough for a self-
sustaining chain reaction.
• In contrast, nuclear weapons require an
enrichment of 90% or more 235U, enough for a
sudden release of energy
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 80
 Atomic Bomb

• In order to create a fission bomb (“atomic

bomb”), a supercritical mass of fissionable
material must be formed and held together.
• Subcritical portions of the fissionable material
are held apart until detonation.
• A conventional explosion brings the
subcritical segments together to create a
supercritical mass capable of a explosive
release of energy.
– This energy sudden energy release is due to an
expanding chain reaction of the fissionable
material.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 81
 Nuclear Reactors

• Nuclear reactors must have a controlled and

continual release of fission energy.
• Within the reactor core, long fuel rods and
control rods are placed.
• The fuel rods contain the fissionable material.
– This is the heat source.
• The control rods contain neutron-absorbing
material, such as B or Cd.
– These rods “control” the rate of nuclear fission and
thereby the amount of heat produced.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 82

 Nuclear Reactors
• Since the fission rate in the fuel rods cannot
be directly controlled …
• The control rods are inserted or withdrawn
from between the fuel rods to control the
number of neutrons being absorbed
• The reactor core is basically a heat source
– The heat is continually removed by the coolant
(H2O) flowing through the core
• This heat is used to generate steam in the
steam generator
– The steam turns a generator – producing electricity

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 83

 Nuclear Reactor

Note that the

hot water
circuit is
completely
“contained,”
thereby
allowing no
radioactive
contamination.

Hot water
circuit
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 84
 Nuclear Reactors – Coolant

• The reactors coolant (H2O) performs two

critical functions:
• 1) The coolant transfers the heat from the
reactor core to the steam generator.
• 2) The coolant serves as a moderator.
– The neutrons that are initially emitted from the fuel
rods are moving too fast to cause 235U fission
efficiently.
– After colliding with several H2O molecules the
neutrons have slowed enough to induce 235U
fission more efficiently.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 85
 Nuclear Reactors – Potential Dangers

• Potential dangers exist with a continuous-

fission chain reaction.
• The amount of heat generated must be
controlled.
– The fission rate is controlled through the insertion
(slow down) or withdrawal (speed up) of the
control rods between the fuel rods.
• The heat generated must be continually
removed from the core.
– The heat is removed by the circulation of the
coolant.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 86
 Nuclear Reactors – Potential Dangers

• Improper control or removal of core

generated heat can result in the fusing or
“meltdown” of the fuel rods.
• The uncontrolled fissioning mass will become
extremely hot and will literally melt through
the floor of the containment structure.
– At this point, the extremely hot and uncontrollable
radioactive material will enter the outside
environment (ground, water, atmosphere.)

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 87

 Nuclear Accidents

• Two major nuclear accidents have occurred:

– Three Mile Island (TMI) Pennsylvania in 1979
– Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986
• At TMI, an accidental shutdown of the coolant
led to a partial meltdown.
– This resulted in very little escape of radioactive
gases.
• At Chernobyl, a complete meltdown occurred
due to poor human judgment and design
problems.
– This resulted in an explosion & fire in the reactor
core and significant regional contamination.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 88
 Breeder Reactor

• Besides 235U, another fissionable nuclide is

239
Pu.
• 239Pu is produced by the bombardment of 238U
(the non-fissionable U) with “fast” neutrons
during the normal operation of a nuclear
reactor.
• In a breeder reactor the production of 239Pu is
promoted.
• The 239Pu is later separated and may be used in
an ordinary nuclear reactor or in weapons.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 89

 Breeder Reactor

• Therefore 239Pu is a natural by-product

of a nuclear reactor.
• 20 breeder reactors running for a full
year produce enough 239Pu to run
another reactor for a full year.
• Breeder reactors run at a higher
temperature than conventional reactors
and use liquid sodium as a coolant.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.5 10 | 90

 Nuclear Fusion
• Fusion – the process in which smaller
nuclei combine to form larger nuclei
– Along with the release of energy
– Does not require a critical mass
• Fusion is the source of energy for the
Sun and other stars.
• In the Sun, the fusion process produces
a helium nucleus from four protons
(hydrogen nuclei.)
– 4 1H  4He + 2 0e + energy
1 2 +1
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 91
 Examples of Fusion Reactions

• 2H + 2H  3H + 1H
1 1 1 1
• Two deuterons fuse to form a triton and a
proton.
– Termed a D-D (deuteron-deuteron) reaction

• 2H + 3H  4He + 1n
1 1 2 0
• One deuteron and a triton form an alpha
particle and a neutron.
– Termed a D-T (deuteron-triton) reaction

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 92

 D-T Fusion Reaction

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 93

 Nuclear Fusion – Technical Hurdles

• The repulsive force between two

positively charged nuclei is very great.
• To overcome these strong repulsive
forces and initiate fusion, the particles
must be heated to extreme
temperatures (100 million K.)
• At these extreme temperatures the H
atoms exist as a plasma .
– A plasma is gas of electrons and nucleons.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 94
 Nuclear Fusion – Technical Hurdles

• The plasma must also be confined at a

high enough density for protons to
frequently collide.
• Even with today’s technology, it is a
significant challenge to reach the
necessary temperature and
confinement requirements.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 95

 Nuclear Fusion - Inertial Confinement

• Inertial Confinement – simultaneous

high-energy laser pulses from all sides
cause a fuel pellet of D & T to implode,
resulting in compression and high
temperatures
• If the pellet can be made to stay intact
for a sufficient time, fusion is initiated.
• Research into this method is being
conducted at Los Alamos and Lawrence
Livermore labs.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 96
 Nuclear Fusion – Magnetic Confinement

• Magnetic Confinement – a doughnut-shaped

magnetic field holds the plasma, while electric
currents raise the temperature of the plasma
• Magnetic and electric fields are useful since a
plasma gas is a gas of charged particles.
– Charged particles can be controlled and
manipulated with electric and magnetic fields.
• The leading labs for fusion research using
magnetic confinement are MIT and Princeton.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 97

 Fusion Advantages over Fission

• Low cost and abundance of deuterium

– Deuterium can be extracted inexpensively from
water.
• Dramatically reduced nuclear waste disposal
– Relatively few radioactive by-products with
relatively short half-lives
• Fusion reactors cannot get out of control
– In the event of a system failure, quick cool down
– Not dependent on a critical mass

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 98

 Nuclear Reaction and Energy

• In 1905 Einstein published his special

theory of relativity.
• This work deals with the changes that
occur in mass, length, and time as an
object’s speed approaches the speed
of light (c.)
• This theory predicts the mass (m) and
energy (E) are not separate entities
but rather related by his famous
equation E = mc2 .
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 99
 Nuclear Reaction and Energy

• Einstein’s predictions have proved correct.

• Scientists have been able to change mass into
energy and on a very small scale, energy into
mass.
• For example, using Einstein’s equation what is
the equivalent energy of 1 gram mass?
• E = mc2 = (0.001 kg)(3.00 x 108 m/s2)
• = 90 x 1012 J = 90 trillion joules
• 90 trillion joules = same amount of energy
released by 20,000 of TNT
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 100
 Nuclear Reaction and Energy

• Calculations with Einstein’s formula, E=mc2,

have convinced many scientists that small
amounts of mass that are “lost” in nuclear
reactions could be a tremendous source of
energy.
• To determine the change in mass in a nuclear
reaction, we simply add up the masses of all
the reactants and subtract the masses of all
the products.
• Generally during a nuclear reaction mass is
either gained or lost.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 101
 Mass Defect

• Endoergic – an increase in mass has

taken place during the reaction
– Absorbs energy by the number of atomic
mass units times 931 MeV
• Exoergic – a decrease in mass has
taken place during the reaction
– Releases energy by the number of atomic
mass units time 931 MeV

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 102
 Calculating Mass and Energy Changes in
Nuclear Reactions – An Example
• Calculate the mass defect and the corresponding
energy released during this typical fission reaction
(using the masses of the atoms.)

• 236
U  88
Kr + 144
Ba + 4 1n
92 36 56 0
• (236.04556 u) (87.91445 u) (143.92284 u) (4 x 1.00867 u)
• Total mass on left = 236.04556 u
• Total mass on right = 235.87197 u
• Difference of 0.17359 u = mass defect
• (0.17359 u)(931 MeV/u) = 162 MeV of energy released

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 103
 Calculating Mass and Energy Changes
in D-T Fusion Reaction –
Confidence Exercise
• Calculate the mass defect and the corresponding
energy released during a D-T fusion reaction.
• 2H + 3
H  He
4
+ 1n
1 1 2 0
• (2.0140 u) (3.0161 u) (4.0026 u) (1.0087 u)
• Total mass on left = 5.0301 u
• Total mass on right = 5.0113 u
• Difference of 0.0188 u = mass defect
• (0.0188 u)(931 MeV/u) = 17.5 MeV of energy released

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 104
 Fusion vs. Fission

• On a kilogram for kilogram comparison,

more energy comes from fusion than
from fission.
• The fission of 1 kg of 235U provides
energy equal to the burning of 2 million
kg of coal.
• The fusion of 1 kg of deuterium releases
energy equal to the burning of 40 million
kg of coal.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 105
 Energy Release in Both
Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Any reaction that leads upward on the curve releases energy

because such a reaction is accompanied by a mass defect.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 106
 Energy Release in Both Nuclear Fission
and Fusion cont.

• Fission proceeds from right to left.

• Fusion proceeds from left to right.
• Note that at the top of the curve is 56Fe. No net energy will be
released by either splitting 56Fe or by fusing several 56Fe.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.6 10 | 107
 Biological Effects of Radiation

• Ionizing Radiation – radiation that is strong

enough to knock electrons off atoms and
form ions
• Ionizing Radiation includes; alpha particles,
beta particles, gamma particles, neutrons,
gamma rays, and X-rays
• These types of radiation can also harm or
kill living cells, and are especially harmful if
they affect molecules involved in cell
reproduction

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.7 10 | 108
 Effects of Radiation on Living Organisms

• Ionizing radiation cannot be seen, smelled,

felt, or tasted
• Film badges worn by workers is commonly
used to measure radiation exposure
• The effects of radiation on living organisms
can be classified into two categories:
• Somatic Effects – short- and long-term effects
on the recipient of the radiation
• Genetic Effects – defects in the recipient’s
subsequent offspring
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.7 10 | 109
 Radiation Units

• The rem (roentgen equivalent for man) is the

unit used to discuss biological effects of
radiation
• This unit takes into consideration the relative
ionizing power of each type of radiation and
its affects on humans
• The average U.S. citizens receives 0.2 rem
per year, from a number of different sources
(both natural and anthropogenic)

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.7 10 | 110
 Sources of Exposure to Radiation
• 0.2 rem –
average
annual
radiation
exposure for
person in
U.S.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.7 10 | 111
 Radiation Sources
• Natural Sources – cosmic radiation (high
altitude areas), bedrock, radionuclides that
are ingested (carbon-14, potassium-40)
– Radon gas, from bedrock, varies greatly with
location, but is thought to cause from 10,000 to
130,000 lung cancers deaths per year in the
U.S.
• Anthropogenic Sources – medical X-rays
and treatment, TV’s, tobacco smoke,
nuclear waste, certain household products

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.7 10 | 112
 Short-Term Somatic Effects
from a Single Dose

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.7 10 | 113
 Long-Term Somatic Effects

• Long-term cumulative effects of

radiation exposure are not fully
understood
• Without a doubt the most common long-
term somatic effect is an increased
likelihood of developing cancer
• Many early workers of radionuclides
died of cancer – these scientists were
generally exposed to small doses for
many years
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section 10.7 10 | 114
 Penetration of Radiation

• But – there does not

appear to be any lower
limit, below which the
effects are negligible
•  any exposure to
radiation should be
taken seriously.

• Alpha and Beta particles are electrically charged and can

be easily stopped. Gamma rays, X-rays, and neutrons
are more difficult to stop because they are not charged
particles.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Section
Section
10.7 10 | 115
10.7