Smart antennas for Wireless Communication
Array Fundamentals
2025
Mustefa Badri
Contents
Antenna Array
An antenna array consists of multiple antenna
Types of Antenna Arrays
elements arranged in a specific configuration to
achieve desired radiation characteristics such as 🔹 Linear Array – Elements are placed in a straight line.
increased directivity, gain, and beam steering.
🔹 Planar Array – Elements are arranged in a 2D grid.
In an array of identical elements, there are at least 🔹 Circular Array – Elements are placed in a circular formation.
five controls that can be used to shape the overall
🔹 Phased Array – The phase of each element is controlled to
pattern of the antenna. These are:
steer the beam.
1. the geometrical configuration of the overall array
(linear, circular, rectangular, spherical, etc.)
2. the relative displacement between the elements
3. the excitation amplitude of the individual elements
4. the excitation phase of the individual elements
5. the relative pattern of the individual elements
Linear Arrays
The simplest array geometry is the linear array.
All elements are aligned along a straight line and
generally have a uniform interelement spacing.
The minimum length linear array is the 2-element
array.
Two element array
Uniform N-element linear array
An array of identical elements all of identical
magnitude and each with a progressive phase is
referred to as a uniform array.
The array factor can be obtained by considering the elements
to be point sources.
If the actual elements are not isotropic sources, the total field
can be formed by multiplying the array factor of the
isotropic sources by the field of a single element.
Nulls
The array nulls occur when the numerator
argument Nψ/2 = ±nπ.
Maxima
The main-lobe maximum occurs when the
denominator term ψ/2 = 0. Thus
Beamwidth
sidelobe maxima The beamwidth of a linear array is determined by the angular
The sidelobe maxima occur approximately when the distance between the half-power points of the mainlobe.
The two half power points (θ+ and θ-) are found when the
numerator is a maximum.
normalized AFn = .707 (AF2 n = .5).
This occurs when the numerator argument Nψ/2 =
The normalized array factor is at the half-power points when
±(2n+1) π/2. Thus
Broadside linear array
The most common mode of operation for a linear
array is in the broadside mode.
The maximum radiation of an array directed normal
to the axis of the array [broadside;
This is the case where δ = 0 such that all element
currents are in phase (all the elements have the same
phase excitation).
To avoid any grating lobe, the largest spacing between the
elements should be less than one wavelength ( ).
Beamsteered linear array
End-fire linear array
The name end-fire indicates that this array’s maximum
radiation is along the axis containing the array elements.
Thus, maximum radiation is “out the end” of the array.
This case is achieved when δ = -kd.
Array Weighting
Where
(Normalized AF)
There are a vast number of possible window functions
available that can provide weights for use with linear arrays.
Binomial Windowing
Binomial weighting is a technique used in antenna arrays
to reduce sidelobes while maintaining a broad main lobe.
It is based on binomial coefficients, which distribute the
excitation amplitudes of array elements according to Pascal’s
triangle.
Features of Binomial Arrays
No Sidelobes: The binomial array completely eliminates sidelobes,
unlike uniform arrays that have significant sidelobe levels.
Broad Main Lobe: The trade-off is that the main beam width
increases, reducing directivity.
Low Interference: Useful in applications where interference
suppression is more critical than narrow
Blackman Windowing
Hamming
Gaussian Kaiser-Bessel
Beamsteered and weighted arrays
The nonuniformly weighted array can also be modified
in order to steer the beam to any direction desired and
with suppressed sidelobe levels.
Circular Arrays
It can be shown that the distance rn is less than the
distance r by the scalar projection of ρn onto ˆ r.
with
The unit vector in the direction of each array element n
The unit vector in the direction of the field point The array factor can now be found in a similar
fashion as was done with the linear array.
Rectangular Planar Arrays
The weights am and bn can be uniform or can be in any form
according to the designer’s needs.
Fixed Beam Arrays
Fixed beam arrays are designed such that the array
pattern consists of several simultaneous spot beams
transmitting in fixed angular directions.
These fixed beams can be used in satellite communications
to create spot beams toward fixed earth based locations.
Fixed beams can also be used for mobile communication
base stations in order to provide space division multiple
access (SDMA) capabilities.
Butler matrices
One method for easily creating fixed beams is through the
use of Butler matrices.
The Butler matrix is an analog means of producing several
simultaneous fixed beams through the use of phase
shifters.
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