PRECIPITATION

INTRODUCTION
PRECIPITATION
Is any dump or deposition in solid or liquid
form that originated from the atmosphere.
Most come from the sea.
occurs when water vapor cools.
When the air reaches saturation point (also
know as condensation point and dew point)
the water vapor condenses and forms tiny
droplet of water.
Precipitation form a 0.001% of the world’s
water resources
Types of Precipitation
 HORIZONTAL PRECIPITATION
– Water vapour become frozen near the
surface or directly on the surface
– Example : dew and fog
 VERTICAL PRECIPITATION
– Water vapour become freezing on the air
and fall to the earth
– Example : rain and snow
 Forms of Precipitation
 Usually precipitation is in two forms:
– Liquid - rainfall
– Solid - Precipitation
• Snow
• Hail
• Sleet
• Freezing rain
RAINFALL
 Rain is the major from precipitation in
the form of water drops sizes greater
than 0.5 mm.
 The maximum sizes of rain drop is
about 6 mm based on the intensity,
rainfall is classified as light rain
(>2.5mm - 5mm/hr), moderate rain (2.5
– 7 mm/hr) and heavy rain (>7.5mm/hr)
RAINFALL
 Precipitation (Rain) Formation Process
Droplets Have
Been Larger Part Of Droplet
And Falling Adding Terms
Down (~0.1 Of Size
Many Droplets
mm) Through
Will Be
Collision And
Diminished
Collection.
Terms Of Size
Droplet Size Through Large Drop
Increasing Evaporationwill Break (3
Through – 5 mm)
Condensation
(0.01 – 10 mm)
Droplet Rainfall
Formed
(0.1 – 3
Water mm)
 Introduction Cont.
 Snow:
– Snow is formed from ice crystal masses,
which usually combine to form flakes
 Hail (violent thunderstorm)
– precipitation in the form of small balls or
lumps usually consisting of concentric layers
of clear ice and compact snow.
– Hail varies from 0.5 to 5 cm in diameter and
can be damaging crops and small buildings.
 Importance of Precipitation
 It is major factor controlling hydrology of a
region.
 It is major input of water to the earth
surface
 Knowledge of rainfall in space and time is
necessary for understanding soil moisture,
groundwater, recharge and river flow.
 The study of precipitation is thus of
fundamental importance to hydrolysis but
detail investigation of the mechanism of its
formation is the domain of meteorologists
and climatologists
 Importance of Precipitation
 Precipitationas used in hydrology
includes all forms of water deposited on
the earth’s surface and derived from
atmospheric vapor
 Unsaturated air at higher levels, expands
(adiabatic) due to the reduction of pressure
with altitude
 Temperature is lowered as a results of heat
energy transferred to work in this process
 This adiabatic cooling is the principal causes
of condensation and directly responsible for
practically all rainfall
 Types of Precipitation
Precipitation is often typed according to the
factor responsible for the lifting
 Cyclonic precipitation results from the
lifting of air converging into a lower-
pressure area or cyclone
 Convection precipitation is caused by the
natural rising of warmer, lighter air in
colder, dense surroundings (Air at ground
surface is heated unequally and rised
causing precipitation
 Orographic precipitation results from
mechanical lifting over mountain barriers
CYCLONE RAIN
 CYCLONE RAIN

Stage 1 :An area of warm air meets and area of cold air
Stage 2 :The warm air is forced over the cold air.
Stage 3 :Where the air meets the warm air is cooled and
water vapour condenses
Stage 4 :Clouds form and precipitation occurs
CONVECTIONAL RAIN
CONVECTIONAL RAIN

 Convectional precipitation results from

the heating of the earth's surface that
causes air to rise rapidly.
 As the air rises, it cools and moisture
condenses into clouds and precipitation.
This type of precipitation is common in
the prairie provinces.
Stage 1:The sun heats the ground and warm air rises
Stage 2:As the air rises it cools and water vapour condenses

to form clouds
Stage 3:When the condensation point is reached large
cumulonimbus clouds are formed
Stage 4:Heavy rain storms occur. These usually include
thunder and lightening due to the electrical charge
created by unstable conditions.
CONVECTIONAL RAIN
Stage 1 :Warm wet air id forced to rise over high land
Stage 2 :As the air rises it cools and condenses. Clouds
form and precipitation occurs.
Stage 3 :The drier air descends and warms
Stage 4 :Any moisture in the air (e.g. cloud) evaporates
OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION results when warm
moist air of the ocean is forced to rise by large mountains.
As the air rises it cools, moisture in the air condenses and
clouds and precipitation result on the windward side of the
mountain while the leeward side receives very little
 Precipitation – various forms
• Rain (most important and devastating)
• Snow (significant in cold countries - Canada, northern Europe –
and mountain areas)
• Hail (pellets of ice: small balls of ice and hardened snow that fall like rain). (devastating but
confined to short periods of time)

CVG 3120
 Precipitation Variation
 Influenced by

– Atmospheric circulation and local

factors
• Higher near coastlines
• Seasonal variation – annual
oscillations in some places
• Variables in mountainous areas
• Increases in plains areas
 Precipitation Variation
 Heavy precipitation occurs near the equator and
decreases with the increase in the latitude i.e. Towards
polar regions.
 Main source of moisture for ppt is evaporation from
oceans. Therefore, ppt tends to be heavier near
coastlines.
 Since lifting of air masses is the cause of almost all ppt,
amount and frequency of rain is generally greater on
windward side of the mountain.
 As downslope motion of air results in decease in
humidity, thus the opposite sides of barriers usually
experience relatively light ppt. High amount of ppt is
reported at higher elevations.
 Precipitation Variation
During the year
High ppt occurs in humid season i.e july, August
Low ppt occurs in dry season i.e May, June
Pressure variation in a particular area causes ppt.
Presence of mountains cause orographic ppt.
Temperature variation also causes ppt in a
particular area
 Measurement of rainfall and Required
parameters
1. Depth of precipitation (in, cm or mm)

2. Duration (min, hrs)

3. Rainfall intensity (in/hr, cm/hr)

4. Space-time distribution of precipitation

Measurement of rainfall – Types of Recordings

Point measurements (Localized)
– Non-recording (standard) gages – measure only (1)
– Recording gages – tipping bucket, weighing-type, float recording-type
- measure continuos

Area measurements (over a certain area)

– Radar measurements (LIDAR, NEXRAD)
– Gauge network
 Measurement of Rainfall
 Rainfall and other forms of precipitation are
measured in terms of depth, the values being
expressed in millimeters.
 One millimeter of precipitation represents the
quantity of water needed to cover the land with
a 1mm layer of water, taking into account that
nothing is lost through drainage, evaporation or
absorption.
 Instrument used to collect and measure the
precipitation is called raingauge.
 RAIN GAGES
 Precipitation is measured in terms of
depth, the values being expressed in
millimeters or inches.
 Rain gages are based on simple idea of
exposing in the open a hollow cylindrical
vessel with a bottom but no top
 Rain or other form of precipitation falls in
to the vessel and its depth (or volume or
weight ) is measured. Snow/frozen
precipitation is melted prior measurement
 Siting a Raingauge Station
 The ground must be level and in the open and
the instrument must represent a horizontal
catch surface
 The raingauge must be set as near the ground
as possible to reduce wind effects
 The raingauge must be set sufficiently high to
prevent splashing, flooding etc
 The instrument must be surrounded by an
open fenced area of at least 5.5m x 5.5m. No
object must be closer to the raingauge than
30m or twice the height of the obstruction
 Hard Surface such as concrete should be
avoided
 Non recording Gage
 There exists a number of non-recording
gages in use
 The standard gage has a collector of 8-
inches diameter, rain passes from the
collector in to cylindrical measuring tube
inside the overflow can.
 With a measuring stick marked in tenths of
an inch, rainfall can be measured to the
nearest o.o1in.
Non-recording Raingauges
 These raingauges just collect the rainwater but do not
record the quantity of rainfall.
 The most extensively used non-recording raingauge in
India – Symon’s gauge.
 Circular collecting area of 12.7 cm diameter connected
to a funnel. The rim of the collector is set in a horizontal
plane at a height of 30.5cm above the GL.
 The funnel discharges the rainfall catch into a receiving
vessel. The funnel and collecting vessel (bottle) are
housed in a metallic container.
 Water collected in the bottle is measured using a suitably
graduated measuring jar with 0.1mm accuracy.
 Rainfall is measured in mm or cm of water depth
Figure: Non Recording Raingauge
 Rainfall measurement…

Precipitation gauge
1 - pole
2 - collector
3 - support- galvanized
metal sheet
4 – funnel
5 - steel ring

1. Non recording gauge

 Recording gages
 Used where the intensity of rainfall or
amounts for shorter duration than can be
obtained by manual measurement is
needed
 Recording gages give a continous pen
trace on a clock-driven drum
 Several mechanism for moving the pen
include tipping bucket, weighting or flooting
 Recording Raingauges
 Recording raingauges give a permanent automatic
record of rainfall. It has a mechanical arrangement by
which the total amount of rainfall since the start of record
gets automatically recorded on a graph paper.
 It produces a plot of cumulative rainfall vs time (mass
curve of rainfall). These raingauges are also called
integrating raingauges since they record cumulative
rainfall.
 In addition to the total amount of rainfall at a station, it
gives the times of onset and cessation of rains (thereby
gives the duration of rainfall events).
 The slope of the plot gives the intensity of rainfall for any
given time period.
 They can provide continuous record for a number of
days. They are very useful in hilly and far off areas.
Recording Mechanism of Tipping Bucket Types
of Recording Raingauges
Figure: Recording Mechanism of Weighing Type
Recording Raingauge
 Recording gauge / graphic raingauge
 The instrument records the graphical variation
of the fallen precipitation, the total fallen
quantity in a certain time interval and the
intensity of the rainfall (mm/hour).
 It allows continuous measurement of the
rainfall.

The graphic rain gauge

1-receiver
2-floater
3-siphon
4-recording needle
5-drum with diagram
6-clock mechanism
 3. Tele-rain gauge with tilting baskets
 The tele-rain gauge is used to transmit
measurements of precipitation through
electric or radio signals.
 The sensor device consists of a system
with two tilting baskets, which fill
alternatively with water from the
collecting funnel, establishing the electric
contact.
 The number of tilting is proportional to
the quantity of precipitation hp
Tele-rain gauge ……

The tele-rain-gauge

1 - collecting funnel
2 - tilting baskets
3 - electric signal
4 - evacuation
 Raingauge Network
 Since the catching area of the raingauge is
very small as compared to the areal extent
of the storm, to get representative picture of
a storm over a catchment the number of
raingauges should be as large as possible,
i.e. the catchment area per gauge should be
small.
 There are several factors to be considered
to restrict the number of gauge:
– Like economic considerations to a large extent
– Topographic & accessibility to some extent.
 Raingauge Network…..
 World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
recommendation:
– In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and
tropical zones
• Ideal  1 station for 600 – 900 km2
• Acceptable 1 station for 900 – 3000 km2
– In mountainous regions of temperate ,
Mediterranean and tropical zones
• Ideal  1 station for 100 – 250 km2
• Acceptable  1 station for 250 – 1000 km2
– In arid and polar zone
• 1 station for 1500 – 10,000 km2
 10 % of the raingauges should be self
recording to know the intensity of the rainfall
 STORAGE GAGES
 Storage gages (or totalizer gages) are
used to store seasonal precipitation in
remote areas where gage observers are
not available
 They are equipped with wind shields since
their their orifices are at a considerable
height compared to ordinary rain gages
 In cold regions storage gages are charges
with a solution to melt the snow.
 An oil cover can be provided to prevent
evaporation.
 Radar Measurement of Rainfall
 The meteorological radar is the powerful
instrument for measuring the area extent,
location and movement of rainstorm.
 The amount of rainfall overlarge area can
be determined through the radar with a
good degree of accuracy
 The radar emits a regular succession of
pulse of electromagnetic radiation in a
narrow beam so that when the raindrops
intercept a radar beam, its intensity can
easily be known.
 RADAR Estimation

RADAR – Radio Detection and Ranging

Developed for detecting military aircrafts (but rain and

other alien objects soon became troublemakers)
 Gage Location
 Should be at level ground and
surrounding objects should not be
closer than a distance equal to four
times their height
 Sheltered from the full force of the wind
 The surrounding ground can be covered
with short grass or be of gravel.
 Hard surface such as concrete should
be avoided.
 Placement of Rain Gauges
Gauges are affected by wind pattern, eddies, trees
and the gauge itself, therefore it is important to have
the gauge located and positioned properly.

• 1m above ground level is standard -

all gauges in a catchment should be the same height

• 2 to 4 times the distance away from an isolated object

(such as a tree or building) or in a forest a clearing
with the radius at least the tree height or place the
gauge at canopy level
Placement of Rain Gauges
shielded to protect gauge in windy sites
or if obstructions are numerous they will reduce the wind-

speed, turbulence and eddies.

Rain gauge with wind guards
Placement of Rain Gauges
 For sloping ground the gauge should be placed with the
opening parallel to the ground
 The rainfall catch volume (mm3) is then divided by the
opening area that the rain can enter
 Number and Distribution of Gauges
Need to consider:
 size of area
 prevailing storm type
 form of precipitation
 topography
 aspect
 season
 Number of Gauges

Number of gauges Size of area

2 16 hectares
3 40 hectares
10 8 km2
15 16 km2
50 160 km2
300 1600 km2
1000+ 16,000 km2
 PROBLEMS IN MEASURING POINT
PRECIPITATION
 The catch of a gage should correctly
represent the precipitation falling on the
surrounding area
 The number of errors arise in measuring
a representative precipitation
– Effect of wind
– Splash in or out
– Evaporation losses
– Losses due to wetting of the gage surface
– Improper levelling
 Double-Mass Curves
 The double- mass curve is used to check the consistency
of many kinds of hydrologic data by comparing date for a
single station with that of a pattern composed of the data
from several other stations in the area.
 The double-mass curve can be used to adjust inconsistent
precipitation data.
 The graph of the cumulative data of one variable versus
the cumulative data of a related variable is a straight line
so long as the relation between the variables is a fixed
ratio.
 Breaks in the double-mass curve of such variables are
caused by changes in the relation between the variables.
Changes in the method of data collection or to physical
changes that affect the relation.
 Double-mass curve can be applied to precipitation,
streamflow, and sediment data, and to precipitation-runoff
relations are described
 Double Mass Analysis
 Double mass analysis [1] is a commonly
used data analysis approach for
investigating the behaviour of records
made of hydrological or meteorological
data at a number of locations. It is used to
determine whether there is a need for
corrections to the data to account for
changes in data collection procedures or
other local conditions.
 Double Mass Analysis
 Such changes may result from a variety
of things including changes in
instrumentation, changes in observation
procedures, or changes in gauge
location or surrounding conditions.
Double mass analysis for checking
consistency of a hydrological or
meteorological record is considered to
be an essential tool before taking it for
analysis purpose.
 Double Mass Analysis
 An example of a double mass analysis is a
"double mass plot", or "double mass curve". [2]
For this, points and/or a joining line are plotted
where the x- and y- coordinates are determined
by the running totals of the values observed at
two stations. If both stations are affected to the
same extent by the same trends then a double
mass curve should follow a straight line. A break
in the slope of the curve would indicate that
conditions have changed at one location but not
at another. This technique is based on the
principle that when each recorded data comes
from the same parent population, they are
consistent.
Double Mass Curve Analysis
 Changes in gage location, exposure, instrumentation, or observational
procedures may cause relative change in the precipitation catch. This
information is not usually included in the published records.

 Double–mass curve analysis tests the consistency of the record at a gage

by comparing its accumulated annual or seasonal precipitation with the
concurrent cumulated values of mean precipitation for a group of
surrounding stations.

 Abrupt changes or discontinuities in the resulting mass curve reflect some

changes at the target gage. Gradual changes in the slope of the mass curve
reflect progressive changes in the vicinity of the target gage, such as the
growth of trees around a rain gage.

 The slopes of different portions of the mass curve can be used as a basis
for correcting the record of the target gage.
 Test for consistency record
(Double mass curve techniques)
• Let a group of 5 to 10 base stations in the neighbourhood of the
problem station X is selected
• Arrange the data of X stn rainfall and the average of the
neighbouring stations in reverse chronological order (from recent to
old record)
• Accumulate the precipitation of station X  Px  and the average
values of the group base stations starting from the latest
record.  Pavg 
• Plot the
 Px against
  Pavgas shown on the next figure
• A decided break in the slope of the resulting plot is observed that
indicates a change in precipitation regime of station X, i.e
inconsistency.
• Therefore, is should be corrected by the factor shon on the next
slide
 Double Mass Curve Analysis
Test for consistency record….

5
accumulated annual rainfall of X stn in 10^3 cm

4.5

3.5
Mc c
3 a 
2.5 c Ma a
2

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Accumulated annual rainfall of neigbouring stns in 10^3 cm

Pcx – corrected precipitation at any time period t 1 at stationX

Mc
Pcx  Px Px – Original recorded precp. at time period t 1 at station X
Ma Mc – corrected slope of the double mass curve
Ma – original slope of the mass curve
 Preparation of Data
 Before using rainfall data, it is necessary to
check the data for continuing and consistency
– Missing data
– Record errors
Estimation of Missing Data
• Given annual precipitation values – P1, P2, P3,… Pm at
neighboring M stations of station X 1, 2, 3 & m respectively
• The normal annual precipitation given by N1, N2, N3,…, Nm,
Ni… (including station X)
• To find the missing precipitation, Px , of station X
Nx  P1 P2 Pm 
Px     ...  
M  N1 N 2 Nm 
 Missing Data-Continue
Rainfall recording stations provide information
at only one point in a watershed.

Rainfall may vary a great deal with in 20 ft up

to 20%. In order to predict the rainfall at
another point, or to
supply missing data for a particular station one
may use the Normal Ratio Method
Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall

 Rainfall varies greatly both in time

and space
– With respect to time – temporal variation
– With space – Spatial variation

 The temporal variation may be defined as

hourly, daily, monthly, seasonal
variations and annual variation (long-
term variation of precipitation)
 Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall
Temporal Variation of rainfall at a particular site

Total Rainfall amount = 6.17 cm

14
Rainfall I ntensity, cm/ hr

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time, min
 Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall

Long term Precipitation variation at Arba Minch

45
40
35
30
Annual rainfall, mm

25
20
15
10
5
0
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Years
Annual Precipitation
average precipitation
 Areal Precipitation Estimates
Arithmetic Mean

Station Observed Rainfall

mm

P2 20
P3 30
P4 40
P5 50
140

Ave. Rainfall = 140/4 = 35 mm

Areal Precipitation Estimates:
Thiessen Polygon Method
 Areal Precipitation Estimates:
Thiessen Polygon Method
Station Observed Area Weighted
Rainfall Rainfall

mm km2 mm

P1 10 0.22 2.2
P2 20 4.02 80.4
P3 30 1.35 40.5
P4 40 1.60 64.0
P5 50 1.95 97.5
9.14 284.6

Ave. Rainfall = 284.6/9.14 = 31.1 mm

Areal Precipitation Estimates:
Thiessen Polygon Method
Areal Precipitation Estimates:
Isohyetal Method
 Areal Precipitation Estimates:
Isohyetal Method

Mean areal precipitation
1. Arithmetic
N
Method
P i
P  i 1
N

2. Thiessen
N
 A Polygo

P  Pi  i 
i 1  AT 

3. Isohyetal
N
 Metho

Ai
P  Pi 
 
i 1  Aw 
HIGHER ACCURACY
 1. Rainfall
1. Depth
2. Snow
2. Duration
3. Sleet
3. Intensity
4. Hails
4. Rainfall Frequency
5. Dew
6. Mist

Rainfall
Types of
Characteristic The Consistency
Precipitation
Rainfal Test Of Rainfall
RAINFALL DATA ANALYSIS Record Using
l Double Mass
Intensi Curve Method.
ty Calculate
Plot Rain
Areal Rainfall Data
Hyetograph
Rainfal
Arithmetical Mean Isohyetal Quadrant
Method l Method Methods
Thiessen Polygon Normal
Method Ratio