Distant Hybridization/ Wide crossing

Syllabus:
Definition, types , problems , methods to
overcome reproductive barriers and
application.
Distant hybridization/ Wide crossing

Pre-requisitions for better

understanding this chapter
Basic Classification Scheme
Species
Genus
Family
Order
Class
Subdivision
Division
Kingdom
 Example: Rice
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Liliopsida
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Oryza
Species: Oryza glaberrima
Oryza sativa

Variety: In Bangladesh only BRRI has

developed about 90 varieties under O.sativa
 Example:wheat
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Liliopsida
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Triticum
Species: T. aestivum; T. aethiopicum; T.
araraticum;
T. boeoticum; T. carthlicum; T. compactum; T. dicoccoides; T.
dicoccon;
T. durum; T. ispahanicum; T. karamyschevii; T. macha; T.
militinae;
T. monococcum; T. polonicum; T. spelta; T. sphaerococcum;
 Example: Mango
•Kingdom Plantae– Plants
Subkingdom Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision Spermatophyta – Seed plants
•Division Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
•Class Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Subclass Rosidae
•Order Sapindales
•Family Anacardiaceae
•Genus Mangifera L.
•Species Mangifera indica L.
 Hybridization
Hybridization:
 The crossing of two plants that have different genotypes.
 Plant hybridization is the process of crossbreeding between
genetically dissimilar parents to produce a hybrid.
 By this process genetic materials of two parents are brought together
or incorporated into the hybrid plant.

The major objectives of hybridization are:

A. Combination Breeding
 Combination breeding is the transfer of characters from other
varieties into a single plant type.
 These characters may be oligogenic or polygenic.
 In this way, genes for disease resistance, quality traits etc can be
transferred (convergent: back cross and divergent breeding : single,
double, three way, successive).
 Hybridization
B. Transgressive Breeding
 Transgressive breeding is based on transgressive variation of characters in
segregating generations like F2.
 A cross is made between two strains of plants and the F 2 is screened for
transgressive variations.
 Transgressive segregation is the segregation of characters beyond the parental
limits (extreme) , in the segregating generations like F 2.

C. Production of Hybrids
 Hybrid (F1) plants show higher vigor and yield when compared to parents, in
some cases.
 This phenomenon is called hybrid vigor.
 F1 seeds can be raised in bulk through hybridization and distributed directly
for cultivation, especially in cross-pollinating crops.
 Types of Hybridization

i) Intervarietal hybridization

ii) Distant hybridization

iii) Somatic hybridization by tissue

culture technique

iv) Genetic recombination through

genetic engineering( hybridization at
DNA level)
 Intervarietal hybridization

Hybridization between two different varieties

of the same species, also called intraspesific
hybridization.

Example: BR-11 X BRRI dhan29 , both the

parental varieties belong to Oryza sativa

Intervarietal hybridization may be of- single ,

double , three way, top or diallele crosses.
 Distant Hybridization

Crossing between two different species of the same genus or

different genera of the same family is called distant or wide
hybridization.

Distant hybridization includes:

1. Interspecific hybridization and

2. Intergeneric hybridization
 Distant Hybridization
Interspecific and intergeneric crosses are made to introduce
new genetic variation into cultivated plants.

In breeding ornamental crops, interspecific hybridization is the

most important source of genetic variation.

Many of the cultivars have originated from complex species

crosses which have given rise to a broad range of shapes and
colours to plants and flowers .

(Ohri and Khoshoo 1983; Van Eijk et al. 1991; Ramanna

1992; Van Creij et al. 1993).
 Distant Hybridization: History
Thomas Fairchild in 1717: Carnation (Dianthus caryopyllus)
x Sweet willian (Dianthus barbatus)

Several attempts had been made to produce distant hybrids

,but all were useless

Rimpau in 1890: Wheat (Triticum sp.) x Rye ( Secale cereale)

Karpechenko in1928: Radish (Raphanus sativus) x Cabbage

 ( Brassica oleracea)
 Main Features of Interspesific Hybridization
 Hybridization between two species of the same genus usually takes place
by sexual fusion.
 It is usually practiced to transfer desirable genes from wild species of plants
to cultivated species.
 Interspecific crosses may be fully fertile, partially fertile or sterile. e.g.,
wheat 6X × 4X.
 Interspecific crosses help in introgressive hybridization which is the
transfer of some genes from one species into the genome of another species.
(the introduction of genes from one species into the gene pool of
another species, occurring when mating between the two produce
fertile hybrids ).
 Fertility level of interspecific crosses depends on the homology of
chromosomes in the parental species.
 In the case of sterile crosses, amphidiploidy is induced with colchicine and
the fertility is restored.
Interspecific hybridization – crossing between
parents from two different species

1. G. hirsutum (2n=52) X G. barbadense (2n=52)

2. G. arboreum (2n=26) X G. herbaceum (2n=26)

3. T. aestivum (2n=42) X T. compactum (2n=42)

Main features of intergeneric hybridization
This refers to crosses between two different genera of the same
family.

 Such crosses are not commonly used in crop improvement.

However, such crosses may become desirable in a number of
situations.

 Intergeneric crosses can be used when the desirable genes are

not present in the same species, but they are present in allied
genera.
Main features of intergeneric hybridization

 F1 hybrids of this type of crosses are always sterile. However,

they can be made fertile by chromosome doubling.

 Intergeneric hybridization has been used successfully in the

development of the synthetic cereal, for example, triticale.
Intergeneric hybridization – crossing between
parents belong to different genera of the same
family

1. Raphanus sativus (Radish) X Brassica oleracea

(Cabbage)

Raphanobrassica

2. Triticum aestivum ( Wheat) X Secale cereale (Rye)

Triticale
 Triticale
Triticum durum (4X) x Secale
cereale (2X)
AABB RR

ABR F1(3X) : EMBRYO

RESCUE

CHROMOSOME DOUBLING

HEXAPLOID TRITICALE (6X)

AABBRR
Interspesific hybridization produce following progenies:

Fully fertile

Fully Sterile and

Partially fertile
1. Fully fertile progenies of interspecific hybridization :

A. G. hirsutum (2n=52) X G. barbadense (2n=52)

B. G. arboreum (2n=26) X G. herbaceum (2n=26)

C. T. aestivum (2n=42) X T. compactum (2n=42)

2. Fully sterile progenies of interspecific hybridization :

A. Brassica nigra (2n=BB=16) X B. oleracea (2n=CC=18)

B. Nicotiana sylvestris (2n=26) X N. tomentosa (2n=24)

3.Partially fertile progenies of interspecific hybridization:

A. T. aestivum (2n=42) X T. durum (2n=28)

B. G. hirsutum (2n=52) X G. thurberi (2n=26)

C. Nicotiana digulata (2n=72) X N. tabacum (2n=48)

 Problems Associated with Wide Crosses

The major problems associated with wide crosses are:

Cross incompatibility

Hybrid inviability

Hybrid sterility

Hybrid breakdown
 Barriers to distant hybridization
 The sexual barriers hampering interspecific hybridization have been

distinguished into pre- and post-fertilization barriers.

 Many studies deal with methods for overcoming pre-fertilization

barriers.

 Once fertilization has occurred, hybrid embryo growth may be

restricted by post-fertilization barriers.

 Both embryo and endosperm have to develop an equilibrium for

sharing nutrients in an undisturbed developmental process.

 Barriers to distant hybridization

 When the equilibrium in the development of the

zygote and endosperm is disturbed an abortion of the
young embryo or disintegration of endosperm follows.

 This abortion can take place in various stages of

development of the young seed.

 Depending on the stage of embryo abortion various in

vitro techniques can be applied to rescue the abortive
embryo.
 Barriers to distant hybridization
Pre-fertilization:

Cross incompatibility or failure of zygote formation/

development- failure of male and female gametes to unite
to form zygote.
Causes: lack of pollen germination; small pollen tube etc.

Z.mays (f) x Tripsacum sp.(m) * style of maize is too long

than the pollen tube of Tripsacum.
Pollen tubes are in polyploid species are thicker than
diploid causes failure of fertilization.
Flowering may not be synchronized
 Barriers to distant hybridization
Post-fertilization :

1. Hybrid inviability or failure of seedling development-

Zygote even embryo may form, but their further
development is arrested.
2. Failure of zygote development,
 causes: lethal genes , genotypic disharmony,
chromosome elimination (Barley X Wheat)
 Hybrid Inviability

• This refers to the inviability of the hybrid zygote or embryo.

• In some cases, zygote formation occurs, but further
development of the zygote is arrested.
• In some other cases, after the completion of the initial stages of
development, the embryo gets aborted.
• The reasons for this are:
1. Unfavorable interactions between the chromosomes of the
two species
2. Unfavorable interaction of the endosperm with the embryo.

Reciprocal crosses, application of growth hormones and

embryo rescue are the techniques that can be used to
overcome this problem.
 Barriers to distant hybridization

Post-fertilization :
3. Hybrid sterility: Plants develop but they can not produce
viable offspring
L. esculentum( tomato) x L. pimpinellifoilium
Sugarcane x maize
 Hybrid Sterility
• This refers to the inability of a hybrid to produce viable offspring.
• This is more prominent in the case of intergeneric crosses.
• The major reason for hybrid sterility is the lack of structural homology
between the chromosomes of the two species.
• This may lead to meiotic abnormalities like chromosome scattering,
chromosome extension, lagging of chromosome in the anaphase, formation
of anaphase bridge, development of chromosome rings and chains, and
irregular and unequal anaphase separations.

• These irregularities may lead to aberrations in chromosome structure. Lack

of homology between chromosomes may also lead to incomplete pairing of
chromosomes.

• Sterility caused by structural differences between the chromosomes of two

species can be overcome by amphidiploidization using colchicine.
 Causes of hybrid sterility
1.Cytogenetic basis:
Reduced chromosome pairing, some times all the chrom-s
may be present as univalent.
Sometimes some chromosomal aberration causes sterility

2.Genetic basis:
in some cases chrom. pairing is regular but show variable
sterility. It may be due to presence of some specific genes/
lethal genes
 Hybrid breakdown

Where the first-generation hybrid offspring(F1) between

two species are healthy, but subsequent generations
resulting from the matings between these hybrids perform
poorly.

4. Hybrid breakdown: Hybrid (F1) are fertile and vigorous,

but the progeny in F2 is week and sterile.
 Techniques To Overcome Barriers
1. Choice of parents
2. Reciprocal crosses
3. Manipulation of ploidy
4. Bridge crosses
5. Use of pollen mixures (The use of mixed pollen i.e. mixture of
mentor/compatible and incompatible pollen)
6. Manipulation of pistil
7. Use of growth regulators
8. Large number of crosses
9. Protoplast fusion
 Techniques To Make Wide Crosses Successful

1. SELECTION OF PLANTS
The most compatible parents available should be selected for the
crosses.
2. RECIPROCAL CROSSES
Reciprocal cross may be attempted when one parental combination
fails.
3. MANIPULATION OF PLOIDY
Diploidization of solitary genomes to make them paired will be
helpful to make the cross fertile.
4. BRIDGE CROSSES
When two parents are incompatible, a third parent that is compatible
with both the parents can be used for bridge crosses and thus it
becomes possible to perform cross between the original parents.
5. USE OF POLLEN MIXTURE
Unfavorable interaction between pollen and pistil in the case of wide
crosses can be overcome to some extent by using pollen mixture.
 Techniques To Make Wide Crosses Successful

6. MANIPULATION OF PISTIL
Decapitation (cutting) of the style will sometimes prove helpful in
overcoming incompatibility.
7. USE OF GROWTH REGULATORS
Pollen tube growth can be accelerated by using growth hormones like
IAA, NAA, 2,4-D and Gibberellic acid.
8. PROTOPLAST FUSION
When fusion of gametes fails, protoplast fusion of somatic cells can be
attempted.
9. EMBRYO RESCUE
Hybrid zygotes formed by wide crosses may fail to grow in a number
of cases. The zygotes are taken out and grown in in vitro medium to
overcome this problem.
Techniques For Overcoming Techniques For Overcoming
Stigmatal and Stylar Barriers Post-fertilization Barriers
• Genetic variation in interspecific • Ovary culture and ovary-slice
crossability culture
• Use of mixed and mentor pollen
• Ovule culture
• Influence of environmental
• Embryo culture
conditions
• Style and ovary manipulations

• Chemical treatments
Integrated Techniques For Overcoming Pre-
And Post-fertilization Barriers

TECHNIQUES FOR OVERCOMING F1-

STERILITY
Chromosome doubling
Application of 2n-gametes
 Chemical treatments
 Application of growth regulators, such as auxins, cytokinins and gibberellins to the

pedicel or the ovary at the time of or soon after pollination may improve fruit and
seed set after interspecific pollination (Emsweller and Stuart 1948; )
 Application of growth regulators to delay abscission of the style and

 show positive effects on the development of young fruits (Kruse 1974; Larter and

Chaubey, 1965)
 In many crosses, application of growth substances promote post-pollination

development up to a stage when hybrid embryos can be excised and cultured (Islam
1980; Subrahmanyam, 1979)
 In interspecific crosses of Populus, treatment of the stigma with organic solvents

such as hexane and ethyl acetate before pollination has been reported to be effective
in overcoming pre-fertilization barriers (Willing and Pryor 1976).
TECHNIQUES FOR OVERCOMING POST-FERTILIZATION
BARRIERS
 A number of in vitro methods have been developed to overcome post-

fertilization barriers in a number of plant species.

 When abortion occurs in a very young stage and maternal tissue has no

negative influence on the development of seeds, ovary culture can be

applied:
 young fruits can be grown in vitro to a stage at which dissection of embryos

is possible.
 In some crops, the ovary is large and slicing the ovary in small parts and

influencing them, is a better option for rescuing the young seedlings in

vitro. This technique is referred to as ’ovary slice culture’.
TECHNIQUES FOR OVERCOMING POST-FERTILIZATION
BARRIERS
 When the mismatch between embryo and endosperm development starts

very early and ovary culture and/or ovary slice culture fails, ovules can be
dissected out of the ovaries and be cultured in vitro.

 If young fruits can stay for a longer time on the mother plant, embryo

rescue can be applied by different methods: in ovule rescue and embryo

rescue.

 Since Hännig (1904) employed embryo culture for the first time many years

ago, these techniques are applied in numerous crops (Williams et al. 1987).
Role of wide crossing in crop improvement

1. Disease and insect resistance

2. Improvement in quality

3. Improvement in adaptation

4. Improvement in yield

5. Change or alteration of mode of reproduction

(CMS line development)

6. Other traits like- leaf texture, colour, earliness,

semi-dwarfness etc.
ROLE OF WIDE CROSSES IN CROP IMPROVEMENT

Wide crosses are generally used to improve crop varieties for disease
resistance, pest resistance, stress resistance, quality, adaptation, yield etc.
These crosses can even be used to develop new crop species. Techniques
like alien addition and alien substitution may also be effective.

ALIEN ADDITION
Addition of chromosomes of a wild species (foreign species) to the normal
compliments of a cultivated species.

ALIEN SUBSTITUTION
Replacement of one pair of homologous chromosomes of a cultivated
species with those of a wild donor species.
 Somatic Hybridization
Somatic hybridization: Crosses made between somatic
cells through in vitro Protoplast fusion.

(Will be discussed in detail in next term in plant

biotechnology,AT-4205)
Distant hybrids
In Animals
A “Liger", a Lion X Tiger hybrid
A “Zonkey", a Zebra X Donkey hybrid
Mule

Horse
+
Donke
y
A “Jaglion", a Jaguar X Lion hybrid
A “Mule”, a Domestic Canary X Goldfinch hybrid
Beefalo

Cow
+
Bison
Broccoflower

Broccoli
+
Cauliflowe
r
Triticale

Wheat
+
Rye
Frequently asked questions-1
 Q. 1. What is distant hybridization?
 Ans. Crossing between different species of the same genes or different genera of the
same family is called distant hybridization; also known as wide crossing. It is of two
types, viz. interspecific hybridization and intergeneric hybridization.
 Q. 2. What is interspecific hybridization?
 Ans. Crossing between two different species of the same genus is
termed interspecific hybridization or intra-generic hybridization.
Such crosses are called interspecific crosses and progeny of such
cross is called interspecific hybrid.
 Q. 3. Who first used interspecific hybridization?
 Ans. Interspecific hybrid was first developed by Thomas Fairchild
in 1717 between sweet William and carnation species of Dianthus
(Dianthus barbatus x D. Canyophyllus).
 Q. 4. When will you use interspecific hybridization?
 Ans. Interspecific hybridization is used when the desirable
character is not found within the species of a crop.
Frequently asked questions-2
 Q. 5. What are types of interspecific crosses?
 Ans. Interspecific crosses are of following three types:
 (i) Fully fertile crosses – Such crosses are obtained between those species which have complete
chromosome homology.
 (ii) Partially fertile crosses – Such crosses are obtained between those species which differ in
ploidy level but have some chromosomes in common.
 (iii) Fully sterile crosses – Such crosses are obtained between those species which do not have
chromosome homology.
 Q. 6. What is intergeneric hybridization?
 Ans. Crossing between two genera of the same family is called intergeneric hybridization.
Triticale and Raphanobrassica are outcome of intergeneric crosses.
 Q. 7. What is introgression?
 Ans. Transfer of some genes from one species into the genome of another
species is called introgression.
 Q. 8. Who coined the term Introgression?
 Ans. The term introgression was first used by Anderson and Hubricht in
1938.
Frequently asked questions-3
 Q. 9. Who made first cross between wheat and rye?
 Ans. The first intergeneric cross between bread wheat and rye was made by Rimpu in 1890 in
Sweden.
 Q. 10. Who made first intergeneric cross between radish and cabbage?
 Ans. The first intergeneric cross between radish and cabbage was made by Karpechenko in
1928 in Russia.
 Q. 11. What are parents of Raphanobrassica?
 Ans. The parents of Raphanobrassica are radish (Raphanus stativus) and cabbage (Brassica
oleracea).
 Q. 12. What are basic diploid species of Brassica?
 Ans. Following are three basic diploid species of Brassica:
 (i) Rapeseed (Brassica campestris 2n = 20, AA)
 (ii) Black mustard (Brassica nigra 2n = 16, BB)
 (iii) Cabbage (Brassica oleracea 2n = 18, CC)
 Q. 13. What are three tetraploid species of Brassica?
 Ans. Three tetraploid species of Brassica are given below:
 (i) Brassica juncea (2n = 32, AABB)
 (ii) Brassica carinata (2n = 34, BBCC)
 (iii) Brassica napus (2n = 38, AACC)
 Q. 14. Who proposed origin of tetraploid species of Brassica?
 Ans. The origin of tetraploid species of Brassica was proposed by Nagaharu U in 1935 using a
triangle which is popularly known as U’s triangle.
Frequently asked questions-4
 Q. 15. Who first synthesized amphidiploid in cotton?
 Ans. Harland (1940) made a cross between Gossypium arboreum and G. thurberi and
synthesized an amphidiploid which was similar to upland cotton (G. hirsutum).
 Q. 16. Who traced genetic origin of upland cotton?
 Ans. Phillips (1963) based on morphological and cytological studies, reported that
Gossypium hirsutum (upland cotton) has originated from a cross between G. africanum
(AA) and G. raimondii (DD).
 Q. 17. Who traced genetic origin of bread wheat?
 Ans. McFadden and Sears (1947) reported that Triticum turgidum and T. tauchi are involved
in the evolution of bread wheat (T. aestivum).
 Q. 18. Who synthesized Nicotiana digluta species of tobacco?
 Ans. The new species Nicotina digluta of tobacco was synthesized by Clausen and Good
speed in 1925 from a cross between N. tabacum and N. glutinosa.
 Q. 19. Who traced origin of Nicotiana tabacum?
 Ans. The origin of cultivated tobacco (Nicotiana tobacum) was traced by Goodspeed and
Clausen in 1928. They established that cultivated tobacco- (N. tabacum) is amphidiploid
between N. sylvestris and N. tomentosa.
 Q. 20. What are progenitors of Nicotiana rustica?
 Ans. Goodspeed and Clausen (1928) established that Nicotiana rustica is an amphidiploid
between N. paniculata and N. undulata.
Frequently asked questions-5
 Q. 21. What are main barriers of distant hybridization?
 Ans. The main barriers of distant hybridization are:
 (i) Cross incompatibility (ii) Hybrid inviability
 (iii) Hybrid sterility, and (iv) Hybrid breakdown.
 Q. 22. What is cross incompatibility?
 Ans. Inability of the functional pollen of one species or genus to effect fertilization
of female gametes of another species or genus of the same family is known as cross
incompatibility.
 Q. 23. What is hybrid inviability?
 Ans. Inability of a hybrid zygote to grow into a normal embryo under normal
conditions of development is known as hybrid inviability.
 The main reasons of hybrid inviability are given below:
 (i) Unfavourable interaction between chromosomes of two species.
 (ii) Dishormony between cytoplasm and nuclear genes, and
 (iii) Unfavourable interaction among embryo, endosperm and maternal tissues.
Frequently asked questions-6
 Q. 24. What the reasons are of cross incompatibility?
 Ans. Main reasons of cross incompatibility are given below:
 (i) Lack of pollen germination.
 (ii) Insufficient growth of pollen tube to reach ovule, and
 (iii) Inability of male gamete to unite with egg cell.
 Q. 25. How will you overcome problem of hybrid inviability?
 Ans. Following techniques can be used to overcome the problem of hybrid
inviability:
 (i) Proper choice of parents
 (ii) Making reciprocal crosses
 (iii) Application of growth hormones
 (iv) Transfer of embryo to culture medium.
 Q. 26. What is hybrid sterility?
 Ans. Inability of a hybrid to produce viable offspring is called hybrid sterility. The
problem of hybrid sterility is more acute in intergeneric crosses than in interspecific
crosses. The main cause of hybrid sterility is lack of structural homology between the
chromosomes of two species. This can be overcome by chromosome doubling.
Frequently asked questions-7
 Q. 27. What is cryptic structural hybridity?
 Ans. In interspecific hybrids, sometimes sterility is due to small structural changes in
chromosomes which are not detectable during meiosis. Stebbins termed it as cryptic
structural hybridity.
 Q. 28. Who coined the term cryptic structural hybridity?
 Ans. The term cryptic structural hybridity was coined by stebbins in 1958.
 Q. 29. What is hybrid breakdown?
 Ans. A condition in which F1 plants of an interspecific cross are vigorous and fertile
but their F2 progeny is weak and sterile is called hybrid breakdown.
 It may result due to following reasons:
 (i) Linkage of dominant genes in one species and recessive in other species.
 (ii) Small structural differences in the chromosomes of two species.
 Q. 30. What is alien addition?
 Ans. Addition of one chromosome of wild species to the normal complements of a
cultivated species is known as alien addition.
 Q. 31. What is alien addition line?
 Ans. A line having one chromosome of wild species to its somatic chromosome
complements is called alien addition line.
Frequently asked questions-8
 Q. 32. Who coined the term alien addition?
 Ans. The term alien addition was coined by Leighty and Taylor in 1924.
 Q. 33. What is alien substitution?
 Ans. Replacement of one pair of chromosomes of cultivated species with those of
wild donor species is known as alien substitution.
 Q. 34. What is alien substitution line?
 Ans. A line in which one pair of chromosome is from wild donor species is called
alien substitution line.
 Q. 35. Who coined the term alien substitution?
 Ans. The term alien substitution was first used by Kattermann in 1938.
Frequently asked questions-9
 Q. 36. How will you make wide crosses successful?
 Ans. The following techniques are useful in making distant crosses successful:
 (i) Selection of compatible parents
 (ii) Making reciprocal crosses
 (iii) Manipulation of ploidy level
 (iv) Making bridge crosses
 (v) Use of pollen mixtures
 (vi) Use of growth regulators (hormones)
 (vii) Use of embryo rescue technique
 (viii) Use of protoplast fusion technique
 (ix) Cutting of long style to proper size etc.
 Q. 37. What is the role of wide crossing in crop improvement?
 Ans. Distant hybridization has played significant role in the improvement of crop plants for
various characters as follows:
 (i) Imparting disease and insect resistance
 (ii) Improvement in quality
 (iii) Improvement in adaptation
 (iv) Improvement in yield
 (v) Development of interspecific hybrids
 (vi) Development of new crop species etc.
Frequently asked questions-10
 Q. 38. What are main limitations of wide crossing?
 Ans. Main limitations of wide crossing are given below:
 (i) Cross incompatibility, hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility and hybrid breakdown.
 (ii) Linkage of some undesirable genes with desirable one.
 (iii) It is a long term programme.
 Q. 39. What is somatic hybridization?
 Ans. Crossing of plants through fusion of somatic cells, i.e. protoplasts is called
somatic hybridization.
 Q. 40. Who coined the term somatic hybridization?
 Ans. The term somatic cell hybridization was coined by Barski et al. in I960.
 Q. 41. What is protoplast?
 Ans. Naked cells or cells without cell wall are referred to as protoplasts.
 Q. 42. Who coined the term protoplast?
 Ans. The term protoplast was first used by Hanstein in 1880.
Frequently asked questions-11
 Q. 43. What is bridge cross?
 Ans. A cross which involves third species (which is compatible with both species)
to make gene transfer possible between two cross incompatible species are called
bridge cross.
 Q. 44. What is bridging species?
 Ans. A species which can cross with both cross incompatible species and is used to
make bridge between such species is called bridging species.
Possible questions:
1.What are the types of hybridization?
compare among them. 2