VITAMINS

• Any of a group of food factors essential in

small quantities to maintain life but not
themselves supplying energy.
• They are fundamental to body functions such
as growth, maintenance of health and
metabolism.
• The absence of any one of them can cause a
characteristic deficiency disease.
• Vitamins are broadly classified as either water
soluble or fat soluble vitamins.
• The fat soluble vitamins include A, D, E, K
• The water soluble vitamins are B complex and
C.
 Definitions
• RDA – Recommended Daily Allowance. It represent the
average daily dietary intake level that is sufficient to meet
the nutrient requirement of about 97% of healthy individuals
• EARs – Estimated Average Requirements. It is the amounts of
nutrients thought to meet the nutrient requirements of 50%
of the healthy individuals in a specified age and gender
group.
• ULs- Upper intake levels – it is the highest intake level for a
nutrient that is unlikely to cause any risk of adverse health to
almost all individuals in the age or gender specified groups?
 Fat soluble vitamins
• Vitamin A
• Essential for growth and the health of all epithelia tissues
(skin, hoofs)
• Vitamin D
• Necessary for calcium & phosphorous utilization in the
formation of strong bones and teeth
• Vitamin E
• Has a vital role in the regulation of all oxygen reactions in the
body
• Vitamin K
• Necessary for proper blood clotting
 Water soluble vitamins
• B Complex Vitamins
• Vitamin B-12
• Functions in synthesis of amino acids carbohydrates and fats
• Riboflavin B2
• Necessary for growth Metabolizes proteins, fats and carbohydrates
• D-Pantothenic Acid B3
• Functions in intestinal motion
• Niacin
• Functions in glucose metabolism and respiration
• Choline Chloride
• Functions in most metabolic processes
• Thiamine B1
• Functions in carbohydrate metabolism in all living cells,
necessary for proper nervous function
• Pyridoxine B6
• Important in metabolism of proteins and fats
• Folic Acid
• Necessary for many types of cellular functions
• Ascorbic Acid
• Necessary for proper soft tissue growth
• D-Biotin
• Functions in healthy hoof growth
 Vitamin C
• Also known as Ascorbic acid or ascorbate
• Human being cannot synthesize Vit C.
• Sources include Oranges, papaya, pepper,
grape fruit, lemons and green pepper, lemons
and strawberry.
• Functions include
• Collagen synthesis
• Tyrosine synthesis and catabolism
• Neurotransmitter synthesis
• Microsomal metabolism
• Antioxidant activity
• Pro oxidant.
• It also has possible effects on cold, cancer and
cardiovascular conditions
• The RDA for adult men and women is 90 mg and 75
mg respectively. It increases to 100mg and 120mg
during pregnancy and lactation respectively.
• It interacts with Iron and copper
• Deficient vitamin C intake results in deficiency
condition called scurvy. – fatal if untreated
• Scurvy is a condition characterized by bleeding gum,
small skin discoloration, hemorrhages, impaired
wound and fracture healing, loose and decaying teeth
and hyperkeratosis of hair follicles.
• Ingestion greater than 2g per day is
characterized by abdominal pain and osmotic
diarrhea, increased risk of kidney stone and
iron toxicity.
 THIAMIN-VITAMIN B1
• A member of the Vit B complex.
• In supplements, found as thiamin
hydrochloride or thiamin mononitrate salt.
• Mainly found in pork, legumes, whole grain
products including cereals and breads. Yeast
and wheat germ contain significant amounts.
• Essential roles in the body include
• Energy transformation
• Synthesis of pentoses and NADPH
• Membrane and nerve conduction
• The RDA for adult men and women is 1.2mg
and 1.1mg respectively, while the requirement
is 1.0 and 0.9mg respectively
• Deficient Thiamin intake result in Beriberi
disease.
• Symptoms are loss of appetite (anorexia),
weight loss.
• Under chronic condition, cardiovascular
system such as hypertrophy and altered heart
rate, neurological symptoms such as apathy,
irritability, confusion and decreased short
term memory may be involved.
 RIBOFLAVIN- VIT B2
• Riboflavin has two coenzyme derivatives FMN and FAD
• Riboflavin is found in a wide variety of foods especially of animal
origin, milk and milk products such as cheese, eggs, legumes.
Green vegetables, fruits and cereal grain are minor contributors.
• Function mainly as coenzymes, exhibit a wide range of redox
potentials and are involved in a variety of intermediary
metabolism such as electron transport chain, oxidative
decarboxylation etc.
• Deficiency of riboflavin is known as ARIBOFLAVINOSIS.
• Clinical symptoms lesion on the outside of the lips, corner of the
mouth, inflammation of the tongue, anemia, neuropathy
(peripheral nerve dysfunction)
 NIACIN – VIT B3
• Also referred to as nicotinic acid or nicotinamide.
• Mainly found in fish, beef, chicken, turkey and pork,
and to a lesser quantity in coffee, tea, green
vegetables and milk.
• Functions mainly as coenzymes NAD and NADP,
which act as a hydrogen donor or electron acceptor.
• Also functions as substrate in non-redox roles as a
donor of adenosine diphosphate ribose (ADP-ribose)
• Classical deficiency of niacin results in PELLAGRA,
characterized by dermatitis, dementia, diarrhea and
death.
• Neurological and gastrointestinal manifestation may also
be observed.
• Large doses of nicotinic are used in the treatment of
hypercholesterolemia to lower total serum cholesterol
and LDL and increase HDL.
• Toxic level may result in vasodilatory effects,
gastrointestinal problems, liver injury, hyperuricemia,
gout, elevation of plasma glucose conc.
 PANTOTHENIC ACID
• Pantothenic acid is found in virtually all food of
plant and animal origin.
• Function in the body mainly as component of CoA
• Participates extensively in nutrient metabolism,
acetylate nutrients such as sugars, proteins.
• Important in lipid metabolism, in the synthesis of
cholesterol, bile salts, fatty acids, hormones ….
• Deficiency of pantothenic acid may result in
“Burning feet syndrome characterized by
abnormal skin sensations of the feet and
lower legs, vomiting, fatigue and weakness.
 BIOTIN
• Sources of biotin includes dietary sources as well
as biotin made by intestinal bacteria living in the
large intestine.
• It is widely distributed in foods such as liver ,
soybeans, egg yolk, cereals, legumes and nuts.
• Avidin , a glycoprotein found in raw egg whites,
irreversibly binds biotin and prevents biotin
absorption. However, avidin is heat labile, ingestion
of cooked egg whites does not compromise biotin
absorption.
• Biotin functions in cells as coenzymes and also as
non-coenzyme, as well as in gene expression and
cell cycle.
• It performs coenzyme function in pyruvate
carboxylase, acetylcoA carboxylase, Propionyl CoA
carboxylase and β-methyl crotonyl CoA carboxylase.
• Deficiency symptoms in human includes lethargy,
depression, hallucination, muscle pain, alopecia etc
 FOLIC ACID
• Especially found in green vegetables and
mushrooms, as well as legumes, citrus fruits
and liver
• Raw foods are higher in folate than cooked
foods because of losses during cooking.
• Function mainly as coenzymes in both
mitochondria and cytosol to accept one
carbon groups generated from amino acid
metabolism.
• It is involved in the metabolism of His, Ser, Gly
and Met. It is also involved in purine &
pyrimidine synthesis and nucleotide
metabolism.
• Folate supplementation during
periconceptional period of pregnancy may
reduce the incidence of neural tube defect
• Premature coronary artery disease,
premature occlusive vascular disease,
Alzheimer’s dementia, cognitive dysfunction,
colon cancer have been linked with plasma
homocysteine concentration, which is
influenced in part by folate status.
• The RDA for folate for adult is 400ug dietary
folate equivalent per day
• Marginal folate deficiency results in MEGALOBLASTIC
MACROCYTIC ANAEMIA – release of fewer than
normal large immature RBC into circulation
• This is characterized initially by low plasma folate.
• RBC folate concentration diminish, bone marrow cells
become megaloblastic, Mean cell volumes MCV
increase, hypersegmentation of neutrophils occurs,
along with decrease of blood cell count, along with
fatigue, headache, irritability, shortness of breath etc
 COBALAMIN – VIT B12
• The only dietary source for humans are animal
products, which have derived theirs from
microorganisms – the only source of naturally
occurring Vit B12.
• The best sources are meat, meat products,
poultry, fish, shellfish, eggs(yolk). Milk and
milk products such as cheese and yogurt
contains lesser quantity.
• It functions as coenzyme (methylcobalamin) in
the conversion of homocysteine into
methionine.
• It also function as adenosylcobalamin
(coenzyme) in the conversion of L-
methylmalonyl CoA to succinyl CoA (Krebs
cycle intermediate)
• Deficiency of Vit B12 like folate results in megaloblastic
macrocytic anaemia.
• Manifestation occurs initially as in low serum
concentration, then followed by low cell concentration
and finally decreased DNA synthesis and elevated
homocysteine and methylmalonic acid concentrations in
the serum resulting in anaemia.
• Deficiency symptoms include skin pallor, fatigue,
insomnia, tingling and numbness in extremities, loss of
concentration, memory loss, disorientation, abnormal
gait and possibly dementia.
 VIT B6
• This vitamin exists as several vitamers.
Pyridoxine (alcohol form), Pyridoxal (aldehyde
form), Pyridoxamine (amine form)
• Pyridoxine is the most stable form, and its
phosphorylated form is found in plants.
Pyridoxal phosphate and pyridoxamine
phosphate are found in animal products. Vit
B6 is mainly found in meat, whole grain
products, vegetables, fruits, nuts.
• The bioavailability of Vit B6 from different
food is influenced by the extent and type of
processing the food is subjected. Substantial
amount is lost through processing.
• Vit B6 function as coenzyme PLP (pyridoxal
phosphate) in amino acid metabolism and also
in action of steroid hormones and gene
expression
• They are involved as coenzymes in
transamination, decarboxylation, cleavage,
racemization, transulfhydration and
desulfhydration.
• The RDA for adult men and women (19-50yrs) is
1.3mg per day, while for men >51yrs is 1.7mg/day
and women>51yrs is 1.5mg/day. For pregnancy
and lactation the RDA is 1.9and 2.0mg/day
respectively in order to maintain an adequate
plasma concn of 20nmol/L
• Groups particularly at risk of Vit B6 deficiency are
the elderly due to poor intake of the vitamin,
alcoholics – excessive alcohol can impair the
conversion of pyridoxine and pyridoxamine to
PLP, renal patient on dialysis – this causes an
abnormal loss of Vit B6, and patient on drugs
such as corticosteroids and anticonvulsants.
• Signs of deficiency include sleepiness, fatigue,
neurological problems
 FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
• Vit A, D, E and K
• The absorption and transportation are
associated with absorption and transportation
of lipids, and optimal absorption requires the
presence of bile salts, and transportation
requires the chylomicrons. They are stored in
the body lipids
 VITAMIN A
• Also called retinoids and includes retinol,
retinal, retinoic acid and retinyl ester.
• The precursor is Provitamin A carotenoids. Not
all carotenoids are Vit A precursors, but
lycopene, oxycarotenoids such as
canthaxanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin are of
physiological importance to the body.
• Retinoids (Vit A) and carotenoids occurs naturally in
foods
• Vit A are found in foods of animal origin especially
liver and dairy products, fish such as tuna, sardine and
herring, liver oil of fish such as cod liver oil are also
high in Vit A.
• The main form of Vit A in foods is retinyl ester such as
retinyl palmitate.
• Carotenoids are synthesised by a wide variety of plants
and are found naturally in many fruits and vegetables
• Dietary carotenoids include β-carotene, α-
carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein
and zeaxanthin. Generally , yellow, red, and
orange colored fruits and vegetables such as
carrots, pawpaw, tomatoes, pumpkins
contains significant amount of carotenoids.
• Green vegetables also contain some
carotenoids
• Vit A is essential for vision, cell differentiation,
growth, reproduction, bone development and
immune system action.
• Carotenoids function as antioxidants, cell
proliferation, growth and differentiation.
• Deficiency of Vit A is associated with increased
infectious morbidity.
• Selected deficiency symptoms include
xerophthalmia, anorexia, retarded growth,
obstruction and enlargement of hair follicles
• Toxicity could result in Hypervitaminosis A.
Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, double vision,
headache, dizziness, birth defects (teratogenic).
• Topical medication for treating acne with high level
of modified Vitamin A has also been shown to be
teratogenic.
• Carotenoids are however generally regarded as safe
(GRAS) with no side effects and are used as dietary
and nutrient supplement and as colorant in foods,
drugs and cosmetics.
 VITAMIN D
• Generally regarded as steroid
• They are usually provided by food of animal
origin especially liver, beef, veal, eggs and dairy
products.
• Dietary vitamin D is not prone to cooking and
processing losses. They are generally stable
compound.
• In plants, ergosterol is activated by irradiation
to form ergocalciferol, vitamin D2
• Calcitriol, the main active form of vitamin D,
function like a steroid hormone.
• The main function of calcitriol is acting with
parathyroid hormone in homeostasis of blood
calcium concentrations and thus impact
several tissues such as intestine, bone, kidney.
• It is also involved in cell differentiation,
proliferation and growth.
• Deficiency symptoms include RICKETS – failure of
bone to mineralize in infants resulting in legs bow
and knees knock as walking begins.
• In adults, Osteomalacia is seen, mineralization
defects resulting from changes in calcium and
phosphorus absorption and excretion.
• Natural sunlight exposure maintains adequate
vitamin D nutrition for most people, and people
with insufficient exposure may be at risk of
deficiency
 VITAMIN E
• Often referred to as tocopherols and tocotrienols.
• They are found in both animal and plant foods
• Oils from plants are the richest and main sources
of vitamin E.
• They function mainly as antioxidants, free radical
termination and destroy singlet molecular oxygen.
• And may also be involved in cholesterol
metabolism, suppression of tumor growth and
cell proliferation
 VITAMIN K
• Provided mainly as phylloquinone in plant
foods and as a mixture of menaquinones in
animal products. Bacteria in the colon are also
good source of menaquinones for human.
• Dietary vitamin K is mainly from plant source.
They function mainly in blood clotting, bone
mineralization, carboxylation of glutamic acid
residues.
• People on prolonged sulfa and antibiotic therapy
coupled with low vitamin k consumption are at
risk of deficiency due to dietary intake and
antibiotic induced destruction of the GIT bacteria
that manufacture the vitamin and contribute to
the source.
• Individual who malabsorb fat will also malabsorb
fat soluble vitamins and are at risk of deficiency.