Chapter 16 Radioactivity
Learning outcomes
• describe the nuclear model of the atom and the
evidence for it
• represent nuclides using their nucleon and proton
numbers
• use a simple quark model to describe protons and
neutrons
• appreciate that electrons and neutrinos are
leptons
• show an understanding of the nature and
properties of -, -and -radiations
Plum pudding model
The English scientist J.J. Thomson suggested that the
atom is a neutral particle made of a positive charge
with lumps of negative charge (electrons) in it.
α-scattering experiment
Rutherford used a radioactive source to fire alpha
particles through a thin sheet of gold foil. A screen
sensitive to alpha particles surrounded the gold foil to
record the strikes of the alpha particles.
Rutherford-scattering
Most alpha particles, like the one labeled A , passed
through the gold foil without being deflected.
A small number of positive alpha particles were
deflected at extreme angles, such as particle B.
Very few even backward, nearly in the direction from
which they had come, like C.
Explaining α-scattering
• Atoms are mostly empty space.
The majority of the mass of an atom is concentrated in
a tiny central nucleus.
The central nucleus is positively charged.
Which statement about the alpha-particle scattering
experiment provides evidence for the existence of the
nucleus?
A. A tiny proportion of the alpha-particles are deflected
through large angles.
B. Slower alpha-particles are deflected through larger
angles.
C. The kinetic energies of the deflected alpha-particles
are unchanged.
D. The number of alpha-particles deflected depends on
the thickness of the foil.
A simple model of the atom
• Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom.
• The electrons move around the nucleus in a cloud,
some closer to and some further from the centre of the
nucleus.
• Atom is neutral,
The scale of things
It is useful to have an idea of the approximate sizes of
typical particles:
• radius of proton/neutron ~
• radius of nucleus ~ to
• radius of atom ~
The mass of an atom
The mass of both the proton and neutron were thought
to be the same.
The mass of a proton(neutron) is defined as 1 u.
We can estimate the mass of an atom.
For an particle (),
And the mass of can be expressed as .
Nucleons
• Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons.
• The total number of nucleons in a nucleus is called
the nucleon number (or mass number) A.
• The number of protons is called the proton number
(or atomic number) Z.
• The number of neutrons
A
Z X
A nuclide is a one type of nucleus with a specific
nucleon number and a specific proton number.
A nuclide can be represented as
The nuclide has 37 nucleons (17 protons and neutrons
Isotopes
Isotopes are nuclei of the same element with
different numbers of neutrons but the same number
of protons.
The chemical properties of the atom is determined by the
number of electrons (and hence the number of protons).
The number of both protons and neutrons determine the
nuclear properties.
The isotopes of the same element have the same
chemical properties but very different nuclear
properties.
A certain nuclide, uranium-235, has nucleon number
235, proton number 92 and neutron number 143. Data
on four other nuclides are given below.
Which nuclide is an isotope of uranium-235?
Each option shows the number of neutrons, protons and
electrons in two atoms, some of which are ionised.
Which pair of atoms in the table are isotopes of the
same element?
Strong nuclear force
In the nucleus of an atom, it is expected the electrostatic
repulsions from all those positively charged protons to
blow it apart. In fact this does not happen because of the
attractive strong nuclear force between nucleons.
The short-range strong nuclear force only acts over very
short distances ( ), and it is what holds the nucleus
together.
The strong nuclear forces exist between any two
nucleons that close to each other.
Families of particles
Today, sub-atomic particles are divided into two
families:
• Hadrons are all particles that are affected by the
strong nuclear force.
• Leptons are particles that are unaffected by the
strong nuclear force.
Quarks
Hadrons are not fundamental particles. They are made
up of quarks.
Quarks Symbol charge
Up
Down
Strange
Antiparticles have the same mass/rest energy but
opposite charges compared to their normal matter
Hadrons
There are two types of hadron:
• Baryons: made up of three quarks
• Mesons: made up of two quarks.
Quark model of proton & neutron
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛=𝑢𝑢𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛=𝑢𝑑𝑑
What is the quark composition of a ?
Radioactive decay
Some nuclides are unstable and decay by emitting
radiation, this is known as radioactive decay.
The decay is said to be spontaneous. The decay is not
affected by external factors such as the presence of
other nuclei, temperature and pressure.
Radioactive decay is random. Each nucleus has the
same probability of decaying per unit time and it’s
impossible to predict which one will decay.
Balanced equations
When an unstable nucleus undergoes radioactive decay,
the nucleus before the decay is referred to as the parent
nucleus and the new nucleus is known as the daughter
nucleus.
Radioactive decay processes can be represented by
balanced equations. Both nucleon number A and proton
number Z are conserved. Mass-energy is also
conserved (the lost mass becomes energy ).
The basic characteristics of ionising radiations
Alpha() Decay
In an alpha decay, an alpha particle (a helium nucleus )
is spontaneously ejected from the nucleus of an atom.
So the mass number is reduced by 4 while the atomic
number is reduced by 2.
The strong nuclear force explains –decay.
Beta-minus( Decay
particles are electrons emitted from the nucleus. β-
particles were emitted with a range of speeds. A new
particle known as the electron antineutrino(no charge
and almost no mass) is also emitted.
For decay, the mass number is constant and the
atomic number increases by 1.
Positron
Positrons are similar to electrons in terms of mass but
with positive charge of +e. Positrons are a form of
antimatter.
When a positron collides with an electron, they
annihilate each other, their mass is converted into
electromagnetic energy in the form of two gamma
photons.
Beta-plus( Decay
particles are positrons emitted from the nucleus.
In decay, a proton decays to become a neutron and an
electron neutrino is released.
For decay, the mass number is constant and the atomic
number decreases by 1.
Quark model of -decay
Weak interaction
The strong nuclear forces only act between nucleons.
This force explains α decay (the number of nucleons
changed), but can’t explain β decay.
The weak interaction acts on both quarks and leptons.
The weak interaction is responsible for β decay.
Radiation penetration
The ionising power: ,
so penetrating ability
Radiations in electric and magnetic fields
is positive
is negative
is neural
The mass of is larger,
so it has a larger
inertia.
Properties of ionising radiation
Emission of α- and β-particles
An astatine nucleus has a nucleon number of 218 and a
proton number of 85. It decays to form a polonium
nucleus, emitting a β– particle and an α-particle in the
process.
What are the nucleon number and the proton number
of this polonium nucleus?
The diagram shows a sequence of radioactive
decays involving three -particles and a -particle.
What is nuclide T?
A nucleus of uranium-238,, decays in a series of steps
to form a nucleus of lead-206,, as shown.
An -particle or a – particle is emitted during each step.
What is the total number of – particles that are emitted?
A. 6 B. 8 C. 10 D. 16
The nuclide decays in a sequence of emissions to
form the nuclide. At each stage of the decay sequence,
it emits either an -particle or a -particle.
What is the number of stages in the decay sequence?
A. 4 B. 8 C. 16 D. 20
The electronvolt (eV)
One electronvolt (1 eV) is the energy transferred
when an electron travels through a potential
difference of one volt.
Fundamental particles
All leptons are fundamental particles.
Hadrons (protons and neutrons) are not fundamental
particles!
