Title: C2.

2: Neural Signalling Date: 04/09/2023

LI: To be able to explain the process by which neurones communicate.

Recap:
1. What is an ion channel?
2. Why are ions unable to cross the cell
membrane without a channel?
3. How does neuronal signals differ from
hormonal signals?

Keywords: Action potential, Na+ channel, myelin, axon, synapse,

depolarisation
 Title: C2.2: Neural Signalling Date: 04/09/2023
LI: To be able to explain the process by which neurones communicate.

Recap:
1. Transmembrane protein which allows
ions to cross.
2. They are charged
3. Quicker, shorter-lived. More targeted.

Keywords: Action potential, Na+ channel, myelin, axon, synapse,

depolarisation
 • C2.2.1: Describe the structure of a neuron having a cell body with elongated nerve fibres
of varying length projecting from it.
• C2.2.2: Describe the axon as a long single fibre helping in the conduction of electrical
impulse and dendrites as multiple shorter fibres receiving and processing incoming
signals.
• C2.2.3: Describe how energy from ATP drives sodium ions into the membrane causing
depolarisation.
• C2.2.4: Explain the concept of membrane polarisation and membrane potential.
• C2.2.5: Explain the reasons for resting potential being negative.
• C2.2.6: Compare the speed in myelinated and non-myelinated fibres.

What
• C2.2.7: Explain the role of synapsis in communication between neurons.
• C2.2.8: Compare and contrast the mechanisms of neurotransmitter release in
different types of synapses.
• C2.2.9: Analyse the factors that affect the magnitude and duration of excitatory

you need
postsynaptic potentials.
• C2.2.10: Describe the process of depolarisation and repolarisation during an action
potential.

to know
• C2.2.11: Evaluate the importance of action potential propagation in neural
communication and information processing.
• C2.2.12: Explain the concept of an oscilloscope and its use in measuring neural
activity.

in this
• C2.2.13: Interpret and analyse oscilloscope traces of resting potentials and action
potentials.
• C2.2.14: Describe the process of saltatory conduction in myelinated fibres.

unit?
• C2.2.15:Compare and contrast the speed and efficiency of action potential
propagation in myelinated and unmyelinated fibres.
• C2.2.16: Describe the effects of exogenous chemicals on synaptic transmission,
including drugs and toxins.
• C2.2.17: Analyse the factors that affect the magnitude and duration of inhibitory
postsynaptic potentials.
• C2.2.18: Understand that multiple presynaptic neurons interact with all-or-nothing
consequences in terms of postsynaptic depolarisation.
• C2.2.19:Understand that nerve endings have channels for positively charged ions,
which open in response to a stimulus such as high temperature, acid or certain
chemicals such as capsaicin in chilli peppers.
• C2.2.20:Explain that the entry of positively charged ions causes the threshold
potential to be reached and propagation of nerve impulses.
Guiding question

• How are electrical

signals generated and
moved within
neurons?
• How can neurons
interact with other
cells?
 Neurons and nerve impulses
• If you look at the brain under the microscope, you see a mess of bundles of nerve cells which looks like long
knotted pieces of thread. These bundles of nerves are your electrical cables.

• There are 100 billion of these nerve cells called neurons

• These neurons carry and send the electrical signals from the peripheral nerves to the brain and back
again. They can send a message from your arm to your head in 5 microseconds.

• The neuron is composed of a cell body, dendrites and the axon.

• The cell body looks like a blob and has an eye called the nucleus. Coming out of the cell body are fingers
called the dendrites and a long leg.

• A single nerve cell can have 50,000 dendrite branches and can communicate with 250,000 other nerve cells.

• The long leg connected to the cell body is the axon and looks like a string of sausages. The axon can be over
three feet long.
Structure of a neuron
 Structure of a neuron
There are 3 types of neurones
which carry electrical signals:

1. Sensory neurones
2. Relay neurones (or
interneurons)
3. Motor neurones
 Structure of a neuron
Cell body – nucleus and large amounts of RER associated with
production of proteins and neurotransmitter.
Dendrons (dendrites) – carry nerve impulses towards the cell body
Axon – single long fibre that carries nerve impulses away from the
cell body
Schwann cells – surround axon by wrapping around many times,
protecting it and providing electrical insulation. Phagocytosis and
nerve regeneration.
 Structure of a neuron
Myelin sheath – forms covering of axon and made of membranes
of the Schwann cells. Rich in a lipid known as myelin. Can be
myelinated or unmyelinated. Myelinated neurones transmit nerve
impulses faster.
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps between adjacent Schwann cells where
there is no myelin sheath. Gaps 2-3um and occur every 1-3mm
Schwann cells form myelin sheath
The structure of a motor neuron
Transverse section through an axon showing the myelin
sheath
 Difference between the neurones
Motor neurones:
Cell body is in the CNS Task:
Long axons Draw a table to compare and contrast the difference between
the 3 types of neurones.
Carry signals to effectors

Sensory neurones:
Cell body is just outside the CNS
Long axons which carry action potentials from the sensory receptor to the cell body. Then a shorter
axon that goes from the Cell body to CNS.

Relay or Interneurones:
Cell body has many dendrites (short axons) coming off the cell body. They connect sensory and motor
neurones together.
 Resting potential

Watch the video

and write a short
explanation of
what the resting
membrane
potential is and
how it is
maintained.
 Resting membrane potential
• -65-70 mV
• Sodium pumped out (3)
• Potassium pumped in (2)
• This is done by the Na+/K+ pump,
which uses ATP
• Potassium leaks out as the
membrane is 1000x more
permeable to potassium.
• Negative anions within the
cytoplasm
Resting membrane potential: Na /K pump
+ +
Generating action potentials (nerve impulses)
Key facts about action potentials:

• Action potentials are ‘all or nothing’

• All action potentials are the same magnitude (+40mV)
• Once an action potential is created at one part of the
neurone it will continue to the end of the neurone.
• Action potentials can only go in one direction
 Action potentials are ‘all or nothing’
Upon receiving a stimuli a few sodium channels are opened it will
result in a small depolarisation, also known as a generator
potential.

By itself this generator potential is not enough to create an action

potential (nerve impulse).

However, many generator potentials can come together to reach the

threshold to create an action potential.
 All action potentials are the same size
ALL ACTION POTENTIALS ARE +40mV

There is no such thing as a large or small action potential.

If the generator potentials do not depolarise the cell membrane

sufficiently an action potential will not be generated and no
nerve impulse will be sent.
 Depolarisation threshold
Most of the sodium ion channels in the neurone are voltage-
gated channels.

This means they opened by depolarisation of the membrane to -

50mV by the gated sodium ion channels.

Q. Why could this be described as a form of positive

feedback?
 Action potentials travel to the end of the neurone

The opening of voltage-gated sodium ion channels causes a

large influx of sodium ions into the neurone. Causing the
membrane to depolarise to +40mV and creating an action
potential.

This causes a large wave of depolarisation moves along the

axon.
Action potentials can only go in one direction
After an action potential has occurred the sodium and potassium ions are on the wrong side
of the membrane.

To rectify this, the Na+ channel closes and the K+ channel opens for a short time allowing K+
to leave the neurone.

The Na+ channel remains closed and the K+ channel also closes. Whilst the Na+/K+ pump
restores the resting membrane potential.

This is referred to as the refractory period.

Q. How does this ensure the action potential can only go in one direction?
Action potentials can only go in one direction
During the refractory period sodium ion channels are closed as
the resting membrane potential is restored.

This ensures action potentials can only travel in one direction.

 Task:
Annotate the diagrams provided to explain the different
stages of the action potential.
Answers
 Questions
1. Explain why a neurone is active while it is said to be resting?
2. Why is it essential to maintain a concentration gradient across the cell
membrane?
3. What is the role of the organic anions inside the neurones?
4. What is the difference in the sodium ions in the generator region and
those elsewhere along the neurone?
5. Explain why it is not possible to stimulate a neurone immediately after
an action potential?
6. Explain the role of positive feedback in the generation of an action
potential.
 Speed of nerve impulse
The speed of transmission depends on the following factors:
• Amount of myelination: the action potential travels more
rapidly along myelinated neurons compared with unmyelinated
neurons.
• Diameter of the axon: the larger surface areas of axons with
larger diameters are able to propagate action potentials faster
than axons with smaller diameters.
• Temperature: the cooler the temperature, the slower the
transmission of nerve impulse.
 Myelination: Nodes of Ranvier
Fatty sheath of myelin around the axon acts as an electrical
insulator, preventing action potentials forming.

At intervals of 1-3mm there are breaks in this myelin insulation,

called nodes of Ranvier.

Action potentials can occur at these points. This allows quicker

transmission.
Myelination: Nodes of Ranvier
 Diameter of axon
In axons with a
smaller diameter,
the ions face a lot of
resistance from
other molecules
such as proteins and
they get delayed in
transmitting the
impulse.
Synapses and Neurotransmitters
 Synapses and neurotransmitters
• Synapses are gaps between neurones

• Information is sent between neurones by chemical transmission

• Neurotransmitters pass across the synaptic cleft (a small gap 20-30nm

wide between neurones) from the presynaptic neurone

• A new action potential will be triggered in the post synaptic neurone

 Functions of a synapse
Synapses act as junctions between neurones allowing:

• A single impulse to be transmitted to a number of different neurones

creating simultaneous responses.

• A number of impulses to be combined at a synapse allowing stimuli from

different receptors to interact for a single response.
 Presynaptic Smooth
Incoming
ActionEndoplasmic
Potential
Neurone Reticulum
Mitochondrion Calcium ion
channel
Synaptic Synaptic vesicle
Knob of
Membrane containing
postsynaptic neurotransmitter
Synaptic
neurone Sodium
Cleft ion
channels

Postsynaptic Neurone
 Incoming
Action Potential

Neurotransmitter

New action
Potential
 Step 1- Calcium ion channels open
• The incoming action potential causes depolarisation in the
synaptic knob

• This causes calcium channels to open

• Calcium ions (Ca2+) flood into the synaptic knob

 Incoming
Action Potential
Ca2
+
Ca2
+
Ca2
+ Ca2
+
 Step 2- Neurotransmitter released
 The influx of calcium ions causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with
the presynaptic membrane

 This releases neurotransmitter in to the cleft

 So calcium ions cause the release of neurotransmitter

 Incoming
Action Potential
Ca2
+
Ca2
+
Ca2
+ Ca2
+
 Step 3- Sodium ion channels
• Neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) is released into the synaptic
cleft.

• Acetylcholine binds to the receptor site on the sodium ion

channels.

• Sodium ion channels open

 Ca2
+
Ca2
+
Ca2
+ Ca2
+

Neurotransmitter (acetlycholine) is released into the synaptic cleft. Acetlycholine

binds to the receptor site on the sodium ion channels.
 Sodium ion channels
• The sodium channels on the postsynaptic membrane are normally closed.
• When the neurotransmitter binds there is a conformational change
opening the channel.
• This allows sodium ions to flood in and causes depolarisation.

Na+

Neurotransmitter binds
and opens the channel.
 Empty
Synaptic
Vesicles

Sodium ions diffuse into

the postsynaptic
neurone Depolarise
 Step 4– Sodium channels
• Neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) is released into the synaptic cleft.

• Acetylcholine binds to the receptor site on the sodium ion channels.

• Sodium ion channels open

• Sodium ions diffuse in (down steep concentration gradient)

• Postsynaptic neurone depolarises

 Step 5- New action potential
• Depolarisation inside the postsynaptic neurone must be above a
threshold value

• If the threshold is reached a new action potential is sent along

the axon of the post synaptic neurone
 Incoming
Action Potential

Neurotransmitter

New action
Potential
 Questions
• When do the calcium channels open and close?

• Why are the calcium ions important?

• What is the name of the neurotransmitter?

• Explain how the neurotransmitter causes a new action

potential to be generated.
The Whole Process
 Incoming
Action Potential
Ca2
+
Ca2
+
Ca2
+ Ca2
+
 Task: Annotated diagram of the synapse
Create an annotated
diagram showing how
an action potential
passes from one
neurone to another
across the synapse.

Include as much detail

as you can.
 Other types of synapses

Synapses exist between

neurons and can also
occur between neurons
and effector cells.
 Neuromuscular junction
Watch the video to
understand the
functioning of the
neuromuscular
junction.
 Neuromuscular junction
 The neuromuscular junction (section B3.3.2–
4) is a specialised synapse between a motor
neuron and a muscle fibre
 When the motor neuron releases the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine, it binds to
receptors on the plasma membrane of the
muscle fibre (sarcoplasm), initiating the
muscle contraction. This is achieved by
depolarisation of the muscle membrane
(sarcolemma) and release of calcium
 Neuroglandular junction
Neuroglandular junctions are
synapses between neurons
and glandular cells. They
allow for the transmission of
signals from neurons to
glands, regulating their
secretory activities e.g the
release of adrenaline from
adrenal glands
Propagation of nerve impulses (HL)
 Propagation of nerve impulses (HL)

So far we have looked at how action potentials are generated.

Now we will look at how the action potential travels along the
neurone.

But first we will review the generation of Action potentials in

more detail
 Depolarisation and repolarisation during
action potentials
You need to be able to explain
each phase of this graph.

Explain how ion channels

open/close and which direction
the ions move.
 Step 1: Stimulus and Depolarisation
 Opening of Na+ ion channels
which cause depolarisation due to
influx of Na+ ions.
 Once the threshold poetential of -
50mv is reached. Voltage-gated
Na+ open.
 Causes a large influx of Na+. Once
the membrane depolarizes to
+40mv a Action potential has been
generated.
 Step 2: Repolarisation
 The membrane immediately
tries to restore the resting
potential. In doing so, the
voltage-gated K+ channels are
opened and K+ ions flow out of
the cell to maintain the
balance.
 Voltage-gated Na+ channels
close-
 Step 3: Hyperpolarisation
 The potential difference
overshoots slightly, making the
cell membrane hyperpolarized
(more negative than the
resting)
 Step 4: Resting phase
 Soon the N+/K+ pump, which is
activated by ATP, comes into
action and starts active
transport of Na+ and K+ across
the membrane to restore the
resting potential of −70 mV.
 Propagation of nerve impulses (HL): Local currents

1. An action potential causes an

increase in the concentration
of sodium ions inside the cell.
2. These sodium ions diffuse
laterally along the neurone.
3. This local current causes a
change in the charge in the
neighbouring area of
membrane.
 Propagation of nerve impulses (HL): Local currents

4. Once the charge of the

membrane becomes -50mV,
voltage-gated sodium ion channels
open.
5. This causes a large influx of
sodium ions into the cell and the
action potential travels along the
axon. This process is often
described as a ‘domino effect’ or
a ‘wave of excitation’.
 Myelination
Q. Why does myelination of the neurones axon increase the
speed of nerve transmission?
 Myelination: Answer
As previously mentioned, the unmyelinated Nodes of Ranvier allow
quicker transmission as action potentials can occur at these points.
This allows quicker transmission.
 Salutatory conduction
Localised circuits arise between
adjacent nodes of Ranvier and the
action potential effectively jumps
from one node to the next –
salutatory conduction

As a result, an action potential

passes along a myelinated neurone
faster than an unmyelinated neurone
 The Refractory Period: One direction
Meanwhile, behind the advancing wave of depolarisation, the previously
depolarised regions undergo repolarisation and enter a refractory period.
As:
 Time is needed to restore the proteins of voltage sensitive ion channels to
their original resting conditions.
 Na+ channels cannot be opened, as it can’t be depolarised again.
WHY?
– AP travel in one direction only.
– Produces discrete impulses.
– Limits the frequency of impulses.
Inhibitory and excitatory synaptic transmission (HL)
 Inhibitory and excitatory synaptic
transmission (HL)
Have you noticed how many smokers often are addicted to
smoking? This addiction is partly due to exogenous (not formed
in the body) compounds, such as nicotine, present in tobacco
smoke and e-cigarettes, which can interfere with
neurotransmission in the brain.
These compounds act as agonists (stimulate) for certain
receptors, mimicking the effects of endogenous
neurotransmitters and disrupting the normal balance of excitatory
and inhibitory signals.
Inhibitory and excitatory synaptic
transmission (HL)
Exogenous chemicals and their effects on
synaptic transmission: Cocaine
Cocaine is a highly
addictive drug.

Looking at the image on

the left, explain the
mechanism of action of
cocaine.
Exogenous chemicals and their effects on
synaptic transmission: Cocaine
Answers: Cocaine is known to
exhibit its effects by blocking
removal of dopamine from the
synapse by binding to the
dopamine reuptake transporters.
Dopamine continues to build up in
the synaptic cleft causing the
postsynaptic neuron to receive
amplified signals. Cocaine has
psychoactive and addictive effects
on the brain as a result of these
amplified signals.
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
 On the postsynaptic membrane of some synapses, the protein
channels carrying chloride ions (Cl-) can be made to open.

 This leads to an inward diffusion of Cl- ions, making the inside

of the postsynaptic membrane even more negative than when it is
at resting potential (hyperpolarisation).

 This makes it less likely that a new action potential will be

created (inhibitory synapses)
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
 Inhibitory
neurotransmitters
like GABA, which
bind to receptors on
the cell membrane
and activate ion
channels, allowing
negatively charged
ions to enter.
Excitatory vs Inhibitory chemicals
Comparing excitatory and inhibitory
synapses
 Question

If all action potentials

are the same size, how
comes we can
distinguish between
different stimuli? E.g. a
loud and quiet sound,
mild pain and intense
pain
 How do we detect the size of a stimulus?
• The number of impulses in a given time – the larger the
stimulus, the more impulses generated.

• By having neurones with different threshold values – the

brain interprets the number and type of neurones and therby
determines its size.
 Features of a synapse
Summation
Low frequency action potentials
often produce insufficient
amounts of neurotransmitter to
trigger a new action potential in
the postsynaptic neurone. They
can, however, be made to do so
in summation.
 Spatial
Summation

Q. What is
Temporal
Summation?
 Features of a synapse

Spatial summation
• A number of different presynaptic neurones together release enough
neurotransmitter to exceed the threshold value of the postsynaptic
neurone. Together they therefore trigger a new action potential

Temporal summation
• A single presynaptic neurone releases neurotransmitter many times
over a short period. If the total amount exceeds the threshold value of
the postsynaptic neurone, then a new action potential is triggered
 Pain and consciousness (HL)
Why do our bodies
need to feel pain?
What would happen
if we didn’t feel pain?
 Pain and consciousness (HL)
Pain is our built-in
alarm system. It makes
us aware that
something might be
going wrong in our
body. Pain is essential
for our survival as it
makes us do something
to protect our body
 Pain: The skin receptors
The dermis (upper layer of skin, there
are several types of receptors responsible
for sensing different sensory
information. These include:
• Thermoreceptors
• Meissner’s corpuscles
• Nociceptors
• Pacinian corpuscles
• Ruffini endings
• Free nerve endings Task:
Research the role of each type of receptor
Task:
Research the role of
each type of receptor Pain: The skin receptors
• Thermoreceptors: found in the dermis, they are responsible for detecting the
change in temperature (hot and cold).
• Meissner’s corpuscles: found in the superficial layers of the dermis, Meissner’s
corpuscles are responsible for detecting light touch and low-frequency vibrations.
• Nociceptors: these nerve endings are responsible for detecting pain. ‘Noci’ in
Latin means ‘hurt’.
• Pacinian corpuscles: located in the deeper layers of the dermis, Pacinian
corpuscles detect deep pressure and high-frequency vibrations.
• Ruffini endings: found throughout the dermis, Ruffini endings are involved in
detecting skin stretch and contribute to the perception of continuous pressure.
• Free nerve endings: these sensory receptors are spread throughout the skin and
are responsible for detecting various sensations, including pain, temperature and
itching.
 Pain is subjective
The perception of pain is influenced by various factors, including:
 the individual’s past experiences
 Emotional state.
 Chronic pain conditions may involve changes in the nervous
system, leading to heightened sensitivity and altered pain
perception.

But the mechanics of pain are very similar

 Pain: ion channels
The neurons with free nerve endings in the skin have specific ion
channels that respond to various stimuli.

They can be triggered by factors like high temperature, acid or

certain chemicals like capsaicin.

When these channels open, positively charged ions flow into the
neuron, reaching the threshold potential necessary for generating
nerve impulses.
Pain: ion channels
 Consciousness (HL only)
In topic C3 we will look at the
structure of the brain in more
detail.
Conscious awareness is
associated with the cerebral
cortex of the brain. Each
experience that we have
corresponds to a neural activity in
the posterior part of the brain
comprising the parietal, occipital
and temporal lobes.
 What is consciousness?
Consciousness is not attributed to any singular neuron or
localised region; rather, it is a complex emergent property arising
from the collective interplay of these interconnected neural
networks.

It is difficult to pinpoint the exact location in the brain from

where consciousness is controlled. It can be said that it
emerges from the interaction of neurons in the brain.
 What is consciousness?
There are different
levels of consciousness.
Sleep is a form of
partial consciousness,
drugs and sedatives can
reduce our
consciousness. While
high doses can make fMRI showing the different levels of brain activity from moderate to
high anaesthesia.
you unconsciousness.
 Summary
• Neurons are cells within the nervous system that carry
electrical impulses.
• Resting potential is established through ion pumping to
maintain concentration gradients of sodium and potassium ions
across the plasma membrane.
• Nerve impulses, known as action potentials, propagate along
nerve fibres for rapid communication and their speed can vary
based on factors like axon diameter and myelination.
 Summary
• Synapses serve as junctions between neurons and effector cells,
enabling communication through neurotransmitters.
• Calcium ions increase the permeability of the presynaptic membrane
causing neurotransmitters to be released in the synaptic cleft.
• Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) result from the binding
of neurotransmitters, leading to depolarisation of the postsynaptic
membrane.
• Action potentials involve depolarisation and repolarisation, enabling
the transmission of signals.
 Summary
• Propagation of action potentials along nerve fibres occurs through local
currents generated by the diffusion of Na+ ions in and out of the axon,
resulting in saltatory conduction in myelinated fibres for faster impulse
transmission.
• Oscilloscope records impulse transmission and oscilloscope traces
visualise resting potentials and action potentials, aiding in their analysis.
• Perception of pain involves neurons with free nerve endings in the skin.
• Consciousness emerges from the interaction of individual neurons in the
brain, influencing our self-awareness and subjective experiences.
 Checklist (ALL STUDENTS)
• C2.2.1: Describe the structure of a neuron having a cell body with elongated nerve fibres of varying
length projecting from it.
• C2.2.2: Describe the axon as a long single fibre helping in the conduction of electrical impulse and
dendrites as multiple shorter fibres receiving and processing incoming signals.
• C2.2.3: Describe how energy from ATP drives sodium ions into the membrane causing depolarisation.
• C2.2.4: Explain the concept of membrane polarisation and membrane potential.
• C2.2.5: Explain the reasons for resting potential being negative.
• C2.2.6: Compare the speed in myelinated and non-myelinated fibres.
• C2.2.7: Explain the role of synapsis in communication between neurons.
• C2.2.8: Compare and contrast the mechanisms of neurotransmitter release in different
types of synapses.
• C2.2.9: Analyse the factors that affect the magnitude and duration of excitatory
postsynaptic potentials.
 Checklist (HL only)
• C2.2.10: Describe the process of depolarisation and repolarisation during an action potential.
• C2.2.11: Evaluate the importance of action potential propagation in neural communication and
information processing.
• C2.2.12: Explain the concept of an oscilloscope and its use in measuring neural activity.
• C2.2.13: Interpret and analyse oscilloscope traces of resting potentials and action potentials.
• C2.2.14: Describe the process of saltatory conduction in myelinated fibres.
• C2.2.15:Compare and contrast the speed and efficiency of action potential propagation in myelinated
and unmyelinated fibres.
• C2.2.16: Describe the effects of exogenous chemicals on synaptic transmission, including drugs and
toxins.
• C2.2.17: Analyse the factors that affect the magnitude and duration of inhibitory postsynaptic
potentials.
• C2.2.18: Understand that multiple presynaptic neurons interact with all-or-nothing consequences in
terms of postsynaptic depolarisation.
 Checklist (HL only)
• C2.2.19:Understand that nerve endings have channels for
positively charged ions, which open in response to a stimulus
such as high temperature, acid or certain chemicals such as
capsaicin in chilli peppers.
• C2.2.20:Explain that the entry of positively charged ions causes
the threshold potential to be reached and propagation of
nerve impulses.
• C2.2.21:Explain that consciousness is another example of the
consequences of interaction.