Part 2
Sedimentary Rock
Clastics and non-
Clastics
(Detrital and non-
Detrital)
Sedimentary rock
• Sedimentary rocks are classified by the source of
their sediments, and are produced by one or
more of:
• Clastic rock formed from fragments broken off
from parent rock, by
– weathering in situ or
– erosion by water, ice or wind, followed by
transportation of sediments, often in
suspension, to the place of deposition;
• biogenic activity; or
• precipitation from solution
• The sediments are then compacted and
converted to rock by the process of lithification
2
om Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia
Lithificatio
n
Lithification (from the
Greek word lithos
meaning 'rock' and the
Latin-derived suffix -ific)
is the process in which
sediments compact Lithification includes all the
under pressure, expel processes which convert
connate fluids, and unconsolidated sediments
gradually become solid into sedimentary rocks.
rock. Essentially, Petrification, though often
lithification is a process used as a synonym, is more
of porosity destruction specifically used to describe
through compaction and the replacement of organic
cementation. material by minerals in the
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia formation of fossils. 3
Once exposed to the Earth’s surface, all rocks are
subjected to processes of erosion, transportation and
deposition… Thus sediment becomes sedimentary
rock.
Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of the
nature of the sediment that they were formed from.
Sedimentary rocks are usually divided into two main
groups:
DETRITAL – named for the size of the detrital
particles (e.g., sandstone, siltstone, mudstone)
CHEMICAL – named on the basis of chemical
composition (limestone, chert, evaporates);
sometimes biogenic rocks are classified separately…
4
5
Bowen’s
Series
A sequence in which early-
formed minerals within a
cooling melt react
progressively with the melt to
modify their composition or to 6
form new minerals as temp
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Sedimentary rocks are formed because of the
overburden pressure as particles of sediment are
deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows
carrying the particles in suspension.
8
Clastic Depositional Environments
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Sedimentary minerals
Minerals in sedimentary rocks are either stable in
low-temperature hydrous environments (e.g.
clays) or are high temperature minerals that are
extremely resistant to chemical weathering
(e.g. quartz).
One can think of sedimentary minerals as
exhibiting a range of solubility
The most insoluble minerals such as quartz, gold
and diamond accumulate in the coarsest detrital
sedimentary rocks
Less resistant minerals such as feldspars, which
weathered to clays, accumulate in finer grained;
siltstones and mudstones
The most soluble minerals such as calcite and
halite (rock-salt) are chemically precipitated in 10
Sedimentary minerals
Accordingly, I would classify sedimentary
minerals into detrital sediments (DSD) and
evaporites (EVP).
Detrital sedimentary minerals include quartz,
gold, diamond, apatite and other phosphates,
calcite, and clays.
Evaporite sedimentary minerals include calcite,
gypsum, anhydrite, halite and sylvite, plus some
of the borate minerals.
11
12
The simple ideal model for the evolution of
sedimentary rocks says there are three end
products, three attractors, that all sedimentary
processes are working to reach - quartz sandstone,
shale, and limestone.
13
14
Component of Sandstones
• Framework grains: are sand-
sized (0.064-to-2-mm
diameter) detrital fragments
that make up the bulk of a
sandstone
• Matrix: is very fine material,
which is present within
interstitial pore space between
the framework grains
• Cement: is what binds the
siliciclastic framework grains
together. Cement is a
secondary mineral that forms
after deposition and during
burial of the sandstone.
PPKBSM 2007 15
• Pore space : includes the open
Type of Sandstones
• Arenites are types of
sandstone that have less
than 15% clay matrix in
between the framework
grains.
• Arkose sandstones are more
than 25 percent feldspar.
The grains tend to be poorly
rounded and less well sorted
than those of pure quartz
sandstones
• Greywacke sandstones are a
heterogeneous mixture of
lithic fragments and angular
grains of quartz andPPKBSM
feldspar
2007 16
Diagene
sisrefers to chemical, mineralogical, or textural
Diagenesis
changes that occur in sediments or sedimentary rocks after
deposition, but before metamorphism. Includes compaction,
recrystallization, and leaching (dissolution). (Temperature
and Pressure ??)
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
Sediment name
Description Rock Name
and particle size
Rounded rock fragments Conglomerate
Gravel (>2 mm)
Angular rock fragments Breccia
Quartz predominates Quartz sandstone
Quartz with considerable feldspar Arkose
Sand (1/16 to 2 mm)
Dark color, quartz with considerable feldspar,
Graywacke
clay and rocky fragments
Splits into thin layers Shale
Mud (<1/16 mm)
Breaks into clumps or blocks Mudstone 17
Chemical sedimentary rocks derive from material
that is carried in solution to lakes and seas. If the solute
precipitates out of the solution to form chemical
sediments, rocks such as limestone can be formed.
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Group Texture Composition Rock Name
Inorganic Nonclastic calcite, CaCO3 Limestone
Nonclastic Dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2 Dolostone
Nonclastic Microcrystalline quartz, SiO2 Chert
Nonclastic Halite, NaCl Rock salt
Nonclastic gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O Rock gypsum
Biochemical Nonclastic calcite, CaCO3 Limestone
Nonclastic Microcrystalline quartz, SiO2 Chert
Nonclastic Altered plant remains Coal
18
Sedimentary rock
structure
Outcrop Of Coal - A Coal Seam
This thin bed of coal (black) is exposed in a road
cut in USA. This coal seam is within a well
stratified succession of sedimentary rocks that
include siltstone and shale which formed in
terrestrial, swampy environments. Note that
most of the rocks are dull brown and gray rather
than earthy, suggesting that they formed in
reducing environments. Late Mesozoic age.
Thickness of coal seam about 0.3 m.
19
SECTION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS.
a. Conglomerate. b. Pebbly
Sandstone,
c. Thin-bedded Sandstone,
d. Shelly Sandstone, e. Shale.
f. Limestone.
Bed, Bedding
A bed is the main descriptive term for a
single layer of sediment or sedimentary
rock. A single bed is the smallest
identifiable division that a geologist can
find in any group of layered or stratified
rocks. Beds can be a few centimetres to
Foliation
many metres thick
A planar arrangement of grains or
textural or structural features in Lamination
any rock, usually the layered The formation of laminae,
structure produced by the or very thin (0.05 to 1 mm
alignment of micaceous minerals thick) layers in a
and the separation of felsic and sedimentary rock, or the
mafic minerals into layers in a state of being laminated. 20
metamorphic rock.
CROSS-BEDDING
21
SORTING
PPKBSM 2007 22
Characteristics and names of some common
clastic sedimentary rocks.
Particle Size Rock Name Rock Characteristics
mud smooth feel, layered
Shale
(see below) appearance
mud
(mud sized particles: Mudstone smooth feel, massive to layer
< 0.063 mm)
silt
slightly gritty feel, may have
(silt sized particles: Siltstone
layered appearance
0.063 - 0.004 mm)
sand rough gritty feel, constituent
(sand-sized particles: grains clearly visible, including
Sandstone
0.0625-2.0 mm) quartz, feldspar, other minerals,
and rock fragments.
granules, pebbles, cobbles,
large rounded fragments
boulders (granule to boulder
Conglomerate composed of older rock
sized particles:
materials
2 mm - > 256 mm)
granules, pebbles, cobbles,
large angular fragments
boulders (granule to boulder
Breccia composed of
sized particles:
older rock materials
2 mm - > 256 mm)
23
PPKBSM 2007 24
PPKBSM 2007 25
fossiliferous limestone bituminous coal
anthracite Rock salt
PPKBSM 2007 26
PPKBSM 2007 27
Conglomerate
Breccia Gypsum
Oolitic limestone 28
Sandstone 29
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
TEXTURE
Roundness (= Sphericity)
Outlines of sedimentary clasts.
As a general rule, clasts tend to
become more rounded as they
are transported farther from their
source area, and they are
considered to be more mature as
they become more rounded. Sorting
PPKBSM 2007 30
Part 3
Metamorphic
rock
Foliated and non-
foliated
What is Metamorphism?
• Metamorphism: refers to changes in rock texture
or mineralogy; takes place in solid state
• Metasomatism: means a change in rock composition
resulting from diffusion or fluid influx.
*The series of metamorphic processes whereby chemical changes occur in minerals or rocks as a result
of the introduction of material, often in hot aqueous solutions, from external sources(http://
dictionary.reference.com/browse/metasomatism)
• For example, SiO2-rich fluids can infiltrate
ultramafic rocks, which normally have rather little
silica, dramatically changing the bulk composition,
and stabilizing a new group of high- SiO2 minerals
• Mineralogical Changes =
neomineralization/neocrystallization: formation of
new minerals (e.g., the appearance of garnet in a rock
that lacked garnet)
32
* A type of recrystallization in which the mineral constituents of a rock are transformed into
entirely new minerals (http://www.encyclo.co.uk/define/neomineralization)
What is Metamorphism?
• Recrystallization: rearrangement of crystal mass
or crystal defects (including grain boundaries) of
minerals already present
• -if accompanied by deformation, recrystallization can
produce a crystallographic preferred orientation,
lineation, foliation, and porphyroclasts
-if no phases appear or disappear during the
recrystallization, only grain growth is occurring
• this coarsening is driven by the free energy of grain
boundaries, which is the energy resulting from two
crystals being in contact along an imperfect
boundary
33
Type of Metamorphism
• There are 3 principal types of
metamorphism:
1- Regional metamorphism – action of increased
temperature and pressure over a wide area.
Characteristic of orogenic belts and produce
metamorphic facies
2- Contact metamorphism – primarily as a result
of temperature increases under conditions of minor
differential stress in a restricted area (aureole
zone)
3- Dynamic metamorphism – controlled chiefly by
shearing stress with little lasting temperature
changes. Fault zone area
34
Process of metamorphism
Metamorphic rocks
PPKBSM 2007 37
Metamorphic
Rocks
REGIONAL
There are three basic types of metamorphic rocks. The first
type of metamorphic rock is usually the result of extreme
pressure rather than that of temperature.
These are known as regional metamorphic rocks. These are
commonly associated with mountain building events and are
often associated with plate boundaries at continental margins.
38
Regional metamorphic rock
There are three basic types of metamorphic rocks. The first
type of metamorphic rock is usually the result of extreme
pressure rather than that of temperature.
These are known as regional metamorphic rocks. These are
commonly associated with mountain building events and are
often associated with plate boundaries at continental margins.
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PPKBSM 2007 40
shale —> slate —> phyllite —> schist —>
gneiss —> melt Shale is a sedimentary term.
Slate: refers to a fine-grained, low-grade metasedimentary rock in which
bedding is typically still visible
Schist: refers to a medium- to high-grade, medium- to coarse-grained
metamorphic rock of any composition that has a fabric.
Gneiss: refers to a high-grade, coarse-grained metamorphic rock of any
composition that has a fabric
Lineation: a linear fabric; typically defined by either linear minerals, such as
hornblende, or stretched grains, such as quartz.
Foliation: a planar fabric; typically defined by platy minerals such as mica or
flattened grains such as quartz. This is a more general term that encompasses
cleavage and schistosity.
Cleavage: a foliation formed by platy minerals such as mica. Most commonly
used to describe low-grade micaceous (pelitic) rocks such as slate. The cleavage
can be very planar
41
Types of Metamorphic
Rocks
^ =Igneous rock
X=Intense Metamorphism
x=Slight Metamorphism
THERMAL
The second type where heat is the primary cause of alteration.
These are called thermal metamorphic rocks, or contact
metamorphic rocks.
This type is often associated with lava flows and shallow plutons
(igneous intrusions). Because of the high heat, the rock
surrounding the intrusion (known as country rock) is often
altered. The pressure involved with these situations is in many
instances, negligible.
Alteration of the rock is generally localized in what is known as 42
a
metamorphic aureole or halo.
SEDIMENTARY TO METAMORPHIC
SURFACE
MUD
5 km DEEP
SHALE (sedimentary)
10 km DEEP
SLATE (low grade metamorphic)
15 km DEEP
SCHIST (Garnet appears)
20 km DEEP
This is known as the geothermal gradient. GNEISS (high grade metamorphic)
The typical geothermal gradient is about 25 km DEEP
30 degrees per km (85oC per mile). HORNFELS (Cordierite appears)
43
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Contact
Metamorphism
• The second type where heat is the primary cause of
alteration. These are called thermal metamorphic rocks,
or contact metamorphic rocks.
• This type is often associated with lava flows and shallow
plutons (igneous intrusions).
• Because of the high heat, the rock surrounding the intrusion
(known as country rock) is often altered. The pressure
Contact
Metamorphism
Alteration of the rock is generally
localized in what is known as a
metamorphic aureole or halo.
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Contact
metamorphic
Metamorphic index
minerals
Metamorphic rock classification guide
49
Textural changes with increasing metamorphism,
the protolithic undergoes increasing recrystallization
and fabric change
limestone —> marble (notice
the characteristic high birefringence and
twinning
quartz arenite —>
quartzite (notice the
characteristic low birefringence)
50
Metamorphic facies is a more sophisticated extension of the
grade concept to include pressure (geobarometry as well as
temperature (geothermometry to the interpretation of
metamorphic rocks.
The indicator minerals become groups of minerals or mineral
assemblages that characterize a particular region of P/T
space.
51
PPKBSM 2007 52
53
Metamorphic minerals
Minerals in metamorphic rocks have crystallized
from other minerals rather than from melts and
need not be stable to such high temperatures as
igneous minerals.
In a very general way, metamorphic environments
may be classified as low-grade metamorphic
(LGM) (temperatures of 60 º to 400 º C and
pressures << 0.5 GPa (=15km depth) and high-
grade meta morphic (HGM) (temperatures > 400 º
and/or pressures > 0.5GPa).
Minerals characteristic of low- grade metamorphic
environments include the zeolites, chlorites, and
andalusite.
Minerals characteristic of high grade metamorphic54
environments include sillimanite, kyanite,
Dynamic metamorphism
Link Between Elements and Minerals
Nine common mineral-forming
elements
element mineral
Si silicates
Al most silicates
Fe + Mg ferro-magnesian minerals
Ca feldspar or epidote
Na feldspar or jadeite
K mica or K-feldspar
O most minerals
H hydrous minerals
56
Next most common mineral-forming elements
element mineral
P + Y + Ce apatite, xenotime, monazite
S sulfide minerals
Ti sphene, rutile, and ilmenite
Cr amphibole, chromite
Mn amphibole
Co + Ni olivine
Zn + Li staurolite
Sr carbonate minerals, feldspars
Zr + Hf + U + Pb zircon
PPKBSM 2007 57
Metamorphic Rock Texture
Foliation is any penetrative planar fabric
present in rocks. Foliation is common to
rocks affected by regional metamorphic
compression typical of orogenic belts.
Rocks exhibiting foliation include the typical metamorphic rock sequence of
slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss. The slatey cleavage typical of slate is due
to the parallel growth of microscopic mica crystals. In gneiss the foliation is
more typically represented by compositional banding due to segregation of
mineral phases. 58
Under thin section
PPKBSM 2007 59
Metamorphic Rocks types
PPKBSM 2007 60
In thin section, the micas
that form fo
liations and cleavages ar
e clearly visible:
crenulation cleavage: a
special kind of cleavage
that forms as a result of
shortening
idioblastic:atsharp
a low angle
crystal
to a pre-existing
form (euhedral in igneous
cleavage
terminology).
The mineral shown is
sphene (CaTiSiO5),
with its characteristi
c high relief and extreme bir
efringence.
poikiloblast: a grain with
inclusions of other minerals--
also called 'sieve' texture
staurolite (a hydrous Mg- cordierite (a hydrous Mg-Fe-Al (typical examples are garnet,
silicate typical of low-pressure
Fe-Al silicate typical of staurolite, cordierite,
medium-characteristic metapelites) 61
yellow color. andalusite).
xenoblastic: no clear crystal form
hypidioblastic: (anhedral in igneous terminology).
intermediate form The image on the top shows
(subhedral in igneous calcite (CaCO3), with high
terminology). The mineral birefringence and twinning, and
shown is garnet (top) the image on the bottom is of
((Mg,Fe,Ca,Mn)3Al2Si3O12), plagioclase ((NaAlSi3O8-CaAlSi2O8),
with its characteristic high with low birefringence and 62
relief and optical isotropy. twinning
A poikiloblast is a porphyroblast mineral with small inclusions of the previous rock in it. From the texture (if
any) shown in the inclusion, the deformation history of the rock can be interpreted, as the inclusions are always
older than the porphyroblast.
Slat
e
Slates are formed from fine-grained sediments such as mudstone and shale. When these are compressed and
heated a little, tiny new flakes of mica grow, and tend to line themselves up at right angles to the direction of
compression. Although the individual mica crystals cannot be seen, the rock breaks along a particular direction, or
cleavage plane. Here you can see the cleavage, and you can also see that it is not parallel to the original bedding
Phylli
te
A phyllite is similar to a slate, except that it forms at higher temperatures. Now the new mica flakes are large
enough to see under the microscope, and form mats of crystals (pink when seen between crossed polarisers) lying
parallel to each other. In hand specimen this rock has a glossy sheen, but individual mica crystals cannot be
Schist (garnet mica
schist)
In this schist, viewed between crossed polarisers, the parallel mica flakes show up in bright colours, and large
rounded garnet crystals appear black. Field of view 6 mm, polarising filters
Quartzit Schist
e
Hornfels
Calcite Dolomite
(Marble) marble
Hydrothermal minerals
• The fourth major mineral environment is hydrothermal, minerals
precipitated from hot aqueous solutions associated with
emplacement of intrusive igneous rocks.
• This environment is commonly grouped with metamorphic
environments, but the minerals that form by this process and the
elements that they contain are so distinct from contact or
regional metamorphic rocks that it us useful to consider them as
a separate group.
• These may be sub-classi fied as high temperature hydrothermal
(HTH), low temperature hydrothermal (LTH), and oxydized
hydrothermal (OXH).
• Metals of the center and right-hand side of the periodic table (e.g.
Cu, Zn, Sb, As, Pb, Sn, Cd, Hg, Ag) most commonly occur in
sulfide minerals and are termed the chalcophile elements.
• Sulfides may occur in igneous and metamorphic rocks, but are
most typically hydrothermal. High temperature hydrothermal
minerals include gold, silver, tungstate minerals, chalcopyrite,
bornite, the tellurides, and molybdenite.
• Low temperature hydrothermal minerals include barite, gold,
cinnabar, pyrite, and cassiterite.
• Sulfide minerals are not stable in atmospheric oxygen and will
weather by oxidation to form oxides, sulfates and carbonates of70
the chalcophile metals, and these minerals are characteristic of
oxidized hydrothermal deposits.
Expected outcome
1. Be able to understand and explain the process and environments
involved in all types of rock formation and cycles.
2. Classification and characteristics of these THREE categories of
rocks
3. Structural features and textures of these rocks that distinguished
them from each categories and within their group
4. Mineral composition of these rocks
5. Chemical composition of these rocks
6. Be able to illustrated their classification in various diagrams that
reflects their properties to each others and environment of
formation
7. Be able to classified these rocks based on petrographics study
(thin section) using polarizing microscope
8. Be able to mineral associated with mineralization involved
hydrothermal process (hydrothermal mineral)
Terima kasih
Selamat
Maju Jaya
72
