NUCLEAR
PHYSICS
About the Atom
Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter.
An atom consists of a positively charged central
nucleus that is surrounded by one or more
negatively charged electrons.
The nucleus contains one or more relatively
heavy particles known as protons (positively
charged) and neutrons (electrically neutral),
which are collectively called nucleons.
Isotopes
Atoms with the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons are called
isotopes.
They share almost the same chemical
properties, but differ in mass and therefore in
physical properties.
Some examples of isotopes of elements:
Carbonisotopes:12C,13C and 14C.
Hydrogen isotopes: 1H(protium), 2H
(deuterium) and 3H(tritium).
The strong forces
The strong nuclear force is a very short-range
attractive force that acts between nucleons:
protons and neutrons.
The strong nuclear force is strong enough to
withstand the electrical repulsion up within a
distance of slightly more than the radius of a
nucleon, l0−15m. Both nucleons are affected
by the nuclear force almost identically.
The Strong Nuclear Force is an attractive
force between protons and neutrons that keeps
the nucleus together.
The weak nuclear force
The weak nuclear force can split the
electrically neutral neutron in to a proton and
an electron. In this process, sub- atomic
particles are released near the speed of light.
These fast particles allow nuclear fusion
reaction- combination of two or more nuclides
to form a single nuclide- by then releasing
enormous energy.
The Weak Nuclear Force is responsible for
the radioactive decay of certain nuclei.
Nuclear Binding Energy
Nuclear binding energy is the energy that
holds nucleons together.
It is the minimum energy that is required to
disassemble the nucleus of an atom in to its
constituent nucleons.
Mass defect Z < p + n
Mass defect is an amount of mass
released in the form of energy during the
formation of the nucleus. This energy is
equal to the binding energy
BE=Δmc^2
Masses of sub atomic particles are
measured in “atomic mass unit(amu
or u)”;
1amu(or1u)=1.660×10-27kg
Nuclear energy is measured in
“atomic energy unit (aeu) ” ; or
“mega electron volt (MeV)”;
1aeu=c2´1amu=1.44´10-10J
1MeV=1.602x10-13J,and 1aeu=
931.1MeV
The mass defect of an atom can be calculated
by:
Δ m =Äm = Zmp+(A-Z) mn-M
BE= Δ mc2=[ Zmp +(A-Z) mn-M ]c^2
=[ Zmp +(A-Z) mn-M ] 931.1MeV
Binding energy per nucleon
is the average energy required to remove an
individual nucleon from a nucleus.
BEN =BE
A
Where BE is the binding energy and
A is the atomic number of the atom.
Nuclear stability
Nuclear stability is determined by the
binding energy per nucleon.
The net binding energy of a nucleus is that
of nuclear attraction, minus the disruptive
energy of the electrostatic force.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the phenomenon of the
spontaneous disintegration of unstable
atomic nuclei to atomic nuclei to form more
energetically stable atomic nuclei.
There are three types of nuclear radiations:
alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) radiation.
Alpha Particles Radiation
Alpha particles are helium nuclei, consisting of 2 protons
and 2 neutrons.
Have Very low Penetration Power: can be stopped by a
sheet of paper or a few centimeters of air.
Has high ionization power, meaning they can cause
significant damage to living tissue if ingested or inhaled.
Use: Commonly used in smoke detectors and certain
medical treatments, such as targeted alpha therapy for
cancer.
Alpha decay occurs in elements with high atomic
numbers, such as uranium, radium, and thorium
Beta-particle Radiation
Unlike alpha radioactivity , beta
radioactivity requires the weak nuclear force.
There are two beta decay types;
Beta minus particles are energetic
electrons emitted from a radioactive nucleus.
Beta minus particle emission occurs when
the ratio of neutrons to protons in the nucleus
is too high.
Penetration Power: Moderate; can be
stopped by a few millimeters of aluminum or
plastic.
Ionization: Moderate ionization power, less
damaging than alpha radiation but more
penetrating.
Use: Utilized in medical imaging (e.g., PET
scans), cancer therapy, and industrial
applications like thickness gauges.
Gamma-particle Radiation
High energy, high frequency, electro
magnetic radiations.
Gamma radiation usually accompanies alpha
or beta decay.
They have no charge and no mass so they
rarely interact with particles in their path.
They are never completely absorbed.
Radiation Detectors
Radiation detectors are devices that measure
the ionization caused by radiation.
They work by detecting the electrons and
positively charged ions created when
radiation interacts with matter.
Scintillators
Function:
Scintillators are substances that emit light
(fluorescence) when exposed to high-energy
radiation.
This light emission, called scintillation,
occurs when electrons in the substance move
from an excited state back to a stable state.
Detection:
The emitted light is converted into an
electrical signal using a photomultiplier tube
(PMT), allowing for quantitative
measurement of the radiation.
Applications:
Scintillation detectors are particularly
effective for detecting gamma and X-
radiation. They can distinguish between
different types of radiation and can be
configured to produce different sounds or
readings.
Geiger Counter
Function:
A Geiger counter, or Geiger-Muller tube,
detects radiation by measuring the ionization
of a gas within a chamber. When radiation
ionizes the gas, it generates an electrical
current.
Limitations:
While Geiger counters can detect alpha,
beta, and gamma radiation, they cannot
differentiate between these types.
Both scintillators and Geiger counters are
essential tools in radiation detection, each
with specific strengths and applications.
Half-Life and Radioactive Decay
Half-Life :- is the time required for half of the
radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay
Each nucleus has a 50% chance of decaying
within one half-life. It is a statistical process
unaffected by external conditions like
temperature.
Decay Rate (Activity)
Formula:
A : Activity (decays per second, measured in Becquerels,
Bq).
λ : Decay constant (probability of decay per unit time).
N : Number of undecayed nuclei at time ( t ).
Exponential Decay Law
No: Initial number of undecayed nuclei at t =
0.
Half-Life Formula
Use of nuclear radiation
Medical Applications of Nuclear Radiation
a) Diagnosis
Purpose: Nuclear medicine uses radioactive
tracers to diagnose organ or tissue function.
Procedure : Tracers (e.g., fluorine-18,
technetium-99m) are injected, swallowed, or
inhaled. Radiation detectors track tracer
absorption or reaction.
Imaging: Techniques like PET scans provide
detailed images, often combined with CT or MRI
for 3D views. Used for diagnosing heart disease,
Alzheimer's, and brain disorders.
b) Treatment
Radiation Therapy: Uses high-energy beams
to destroy cancer cells by damaging their
DNA.
External Beam Radiation
(Teletherapy): Radiation from an
external machine (e.g., cobalt-60) targets
cancer sites.
Internal Radiation Therapy:
Brachytherapy: Radioactive
implants (e.g., iodine-131) are placed
near the cancer.
Systemic Therapy: Radioactive
Radioactive Dating
Radioactive dating determines the age of
materials by measuring the decay of
radioactive isotopes.
Scientists compare the ratio of parent
isotopes to daughter isotopes formed from
decay, using the formula
1. Carbon-14 Dating
Application: Used for dating biological
materials up to 50,000-60,000 years old.
Process: Carbon-14, with a half-life of 5,730
years, is absorbed by living organisms. After
death, 14C decays and is not replenished. By
comparing 14C levels in artifacts to living
tissue, the age is determined.
Limitations: Not suitable for very old
samples (over 50,000 years) as 14C levels
become negligible.
2. Argon-Argon Dating
Used for dating older samples, such as
fossils.
Example: Lucy (Dinikenesh), a 3.18-million-
year-old fossil found in Ethiopia, was dated
using 40Ar - 39Ar dating on volcanic ash
layers surrounding her remains.
Nuclear Reaction and Energy Production
Nuclear fission reaction is the splitting
of a heavy atomic nucleus two fragments of
roughly equal mass
Process: Induced by neutron absorption,
resulting in the release of additional neutrons
and energy (e.g., 200 MeV per fission event).
Energy Release: Converts into kinetic energy
of fission fragments, heat, and sound.
Applications of Fission
Power Reactors:
Purpose: Generate electricity through controlled
chain reactions.
Process: Heat from fission produces steam, driving
turbines to generate electricity.
Components:
Fuel: Uranium oxide pellets in fuel rods.
Moderator: Slows neutrons (e.g., water, heavy
water, graphite).
Control Rods: Regulate reaction rate (e.g.,
cadmium, boron).
Coolant: Transfers heat (e.g., water in light water
reactors).
Research Reactors:
Used for scientific research, isotope
production, and material testing.
Chain Reaction:
Controlled: Sustained in nuclear reactors for
energy production.
Uncontrolled: Leads to explosive energy
release in nuclear weapons
Critical Mass: Minimum mass required to
sustain a chain reaction.
Nuclear Fusion and Its Uses
Is the process of combining two or more
lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus,
releasing significant energy.
Energy Release: The mass of the resulting
nucleus is less than the original nuclei, with
the mass difference converted into energy
(mass defect).
Fusion in the Sun
Process: Four hydrogen nuclei (protons) fuse
to form a helium nucleus, releasing energy.
Energy Output: Produces about 3.6 times
10^11 kJ per mole of helium-4, significantly
more than nuclear fission or chemical
combustion.
Applications
Energy Production: Potential future energy
source with high efficiency and minimal
waste.
Hydrogen Bomb: Misuse of fusion
technology, resulting in highly destructive
thermonuclear weapons.
Nuclear fusion is a powerful process with the
potential to revolutionize energy production,
though it also poses significant challenges
and risks.
Nuclear Safety
Ensuring proper operating conditions,
preventing accidents, and mitigating their
consequences to protect people and the
environment from radiation hazards.
Covers the extraction, transportation,
storage, processing, and disposal of nuclear
materials, as well as the safety of nuclear
power plants and weapons.
Radiation Protection Principles
Time: Minimize exposure time to reduce
radiation dose.
Distance: Increase distance from the
radiation source to significantly decrease
exposure.
Shielding: Use barriers like lead, concrete,
or water to protect against penetrating
radiation (e.g., gamma rays, X-rays).
Thank you
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