COMPUTER SCIENCE

11

Chapter 5
Computer Architecture
Contents
 Computer Architecture
 CPU
 Memory Unit
 Computer Bus
 I/O Unit
 CPU Registers
 Instruction Set
 Instruction Format
 Fetch - Decode - Execute Cycle
 Port
 Operating System
 Programming Languages
 Language Translator
 Von Neumann Design

 1951  proposed design of a stored-program computer

 By Von Neumann & his team
 Design  a sequence of instructions (called a program) & data are stored in memory
 Computer reads instructions one by one
 executes these instructions to perform different operations on data
 Very simple design & general-purpose
 Modern digital computers  based on Von Neumann design
 Computer Architecture
 Components of computer
 each component performs a specific function
 Components of computer communicate with one another
 Computer architecture  Way in which various components of computer are connected
 Components of Computer Architecture
1- CPU
 CPU  Central Processing Unit, Processor
 Considered as brain of computer
 Processes (or manipulates) data according to given instructions and converts it into useful
information
 Components of CPU
Control Unit (CU)
 Acts as a supervisor of computer
 Controls all parts of computer & coordinates all activities of computer
 Fetches instructions & data from memory unit
 Decodes & executes instructions one by one
Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
 Performs all arithmetic & logical operations on data
 Components of Computer Architecture
2- Main Memory
 Memory  Used to store data and instructions
 CPU loads data & instructions in main memory
 Reads data & instructions from main memory
 Process data according to given instructions
 Data and results of calculations  stored in main memory
 Working area of computer (computer cannot work without having main memory)
3- I/O Unit
 Controls communication between processor & peripheral devices (i.e. I/O devices)
 Peripheral devices  keyboard, monitor, printer, & disk drives
 Controls different I/O devices connected to computer system
4- Bus Interconnection
 Bus  electrical path through which data, instructions, or control signals flow from one component of
computer to another
 Communication channel on motherboard
 Connects different components of computer (such as CPU, main memory, and I/O units)
 CPU
 CPU  Central Processing Unit, Processor
 Considered as brain of computer
 Performs different operations on the data according to given instructions
 Manages other operations of computer
 CPU of personal computer  microprocessor
 Single chip
 Located on motherboard
 Other components connected to it  through Bus interconnection
 CPU sends & receives data to/from different components of computer through Bus
interconnection
 Components of CPU
1. Control Unit
 Acts as a supervisor of computer
 Controls all parts of computer & coordinates all activities of computer
 Example: receives data & instructions from input device and stores them in main memory.
 Also controls execution of instructions given to computer
 Fetches instructions & data from memory unit
 Decodes & executes instructions one by one
2. Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
 Performs arithmetic & logical operations on data
 Arithmetic operations ALU performs addition, subtraction, multiplication, & division
 Logical operations ALU compares numerical data as well as alphabetic data
 For example: checks whether first number is greater than second, less than second or equal to second, etc.
 Memory Unit

 Memory  store data & instructions

 Personal computer contains a main memory
 CPU loads data & instructions in main memory to process data
 CPU reads data & instructions from main memory & processes data according to given
instructions
 Data & results of calculations are also stored in main memory
 Working area of computer
 computer cannot work without having main memory
 Two types of memories
 RAM
 ROM
 Structure of Main Memory
 Built in form of a chip
 chip  made of semiconductor material

Main memory of computer  consists of thousands or millions

of cells
 Each cell  store a bit (Binary digit)
 bit represents 0 or 1
 Cells logically organized into a group of 8 bits  byte

 Byte in memory  unique number assigned  address of that byte

 Accessing Data in Main Memory

 Main memory  collection of bytes arranged in an order

 CPU access any byte  by specifying its address
 Different bytes  accessed directly or randomly
 Accessing any part of memory  takes an equal amount of time
 Very fast to access data as compared to other storage devices (magnetic and optical disks)
 because; main memory does not involve any mechanical movement in accessing data
 RAM
 RAM  Random Access Memory
 Because; data accessed directly
 Used for storage of active programs & data
 Processor directly write & read information (data & instructions) to/from RAM
 read/write memory
 Processor  write information (data & instructions) to RAM
 Processor  read information from RAM
 Temporarily storage, primary memory
 volatile memory
 data and programs lost when power is turned off
 Information must be saved on storage devices for later use
 Storage capacity  measured in bytes
 PCs  RAM size 4GB or more
 More RAM size  computer can use a powerful program with a large size
 Improves data processing speed
 Types of RAM
1. DRAM
 DRAM  Dynamic Random Access Memory
 Used in most of the computers
 To maintain data in DRAM  refreshed with electric charge again and again
 otherwise, data lost
 During refreshing process  CPU has to wait (write/read data to/from DRAM)
 Slow memory
2. SRAM
 SRAM  Static Random Access Memory
 Does not have to be refreshed with electric charge again and again
 Faster than DRAM
 because CPU does not have to wait
 Utilize less power than DRAM
 More expensive than DRAM chip
 SRAM technology  used to build a very fast memory  cache memory
 Cache Memory
 Processor obtains data & instructions from RAM during data processing
 Often obtains same data or instructions again and again
 a lot of time wasted
 Performance affected
 Cache memory  very small but very fast memory than RAM
 Used to improve performance of processor
 Build-in with CPU
 Separate chips on motherboard (located between RAM and CPU)
 Stores frequently used instructions & data
 When CPU needs specific data or program instruction
 quickly obtains from cache memory
 Speeds up the working of CPU
 If required data & instructions not found  processor loads them
 into RAM from disk (i.e. hard disk)
 loads/stores a copy in cache memory
 ROM
 ROM  Read Only Memory
 Data and instructions stored by manufacturer at time of ROM manufacturing
 cannot be changed afterward
 Data or instructions can only be read but cannot be written
 That is why, Read Only Memory
 Stores permanently
 non-volatile memory
 When power turned off  instructions not lost
 Contains instructions  help booting process
 When computer is switched on  instructions in ROM automatically activated
 prepare the computer for use
 Types of ROM
1. PROM
 PROM  Programmable Read Only Memory
 Initially blank
 User or manufacturer write data or programs on it  by using special devices
 Once program or data is written  cannot be changed
 If error in writing program or data  cannot be removed
 PROM chip becomes unusable
2. EPROM
 EPROM  Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
 Initially blank; user or manufacturer write a program or data  by using special devices
 Program or data can be removed (erased) by using special devices and ultraviolet rays
 program or data can be changed & new data can be added
 When EPROM is in use, only read contents
3. EEPROM
 EEPROM  Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
 User can write or change instructions or information  with the help of electrical devices
 ROM RAM

 Read-only memory  Read & write memory

 Permanent memory  Temporary memory
 Non-volatile memory  Volatile memory
 Manufacturer  only write data and  User  read & write data/programs (at
programs (at manufacturing time) any time during data processing)
 Small storage capacity  Large storage capacity
 Data written  using special devices &  Data written  using electrical devices
ultraviolet rays
 Computer Bus
 Different components of computer  interconnected by using a set of parallel lines or conducting
wires
 Computer Bus  set of electrical paths through which computer (CPU) sends & receives data &
instructions (and also sends command signals) to/from different components of computer
 Backbone of computer
 Without bus  Computer cannot perform any function
 Various devices or components communicate through buses
 Example: buses transfer data
 input device  memory
 memory  output device or storage device or between memory and processor
 Capacity of bus  depends upon number of data lines
 For example: bus with 16-lines  carry 16-bits at a time
 Bus Width  amount of data (or a number of bits) that a Bus can carry at one time
 For example: bus with 32 lines transfer 32 bits (or 4 bytes) at a time
 Larger number of bits handled by bus  faster data transfer rate
 Types of Buses
(1) System Buses
 Connects main components of computer
 such as CPU & main memory on motherboard
 System Buses  part of motherboard
 Normally 70 – 100 lines
 Types of System Bus
 Data Bus
 Address Bus
 Control Bus
(2) Expansion Buses
 Connect CPU (processor) to peripheral devices
 Peripheral devices: keyboard, mouse, modem, printer, etc.
 Processor communicates with peripheral  via expansion bus & system bus
 Width of expansion buses  from 16 to 64 bits
 Types of System Bus
1. Data Bus
 Transfer data (and instructions) between different components
 Connects CPU, memory unit, and other hardware devices on motherboard
 bi-directional
 Data sent & received through this electrical path
 For example: CPU write & read data to/ from main memory through a data bus
 Consists of 8, 16, 32, or 64 parallel lines
 Data Bus of 64-line  transfer 64-bits (or 8 bytes) of data at a time
 Number of lines  affects speed of data transfer
 Types of System Bus
2. Address Bus
 Carry address information or memory locations
 Unidirectional
 information flows only in one direction
 CPU can only send address information & cannot receive any information
 Components  connected through address bus
 Each component  assigned unique ID  address of that component
 When a computer component needs to communicate
 uses address bus to specify address of that component
 Suppose  CPU needs to read data from memory
 places address of that memory location on address bus
 address is carried to memory
 Data from requested memory location fetched
 placed on data bus
 CPU reads data from data bus
 Width of address bus  from 16 to 32 bits
 Types of System Bus
3. Control Bus
 CPU sends control signals to different components or devices
 Control signal  timing information & command signal
 Timing information  time for which device or component can use data & address bus
 Command signal  specifies the type of operation that is to be performed
 CPU (control unit)  controls functioning of components through control bus
 Components & devices  input/output devices, main memory, secondary storage devices, etc.
 Width of control bus  from 8 to 16 bits
 Suppose  CPU wants to read data from main memory
 Control bus send "memory read" command to main memory
 Also transmit other control signals like ACKS (Acknowledgement signals)
 When CPU sends command to main memory  writing data
 memory sends back acknowledgment signal to CPU after writing data successfully
 CPU Commands  CPU operations
 Memory Write
 Used to write data to a specified location in main memory
 Memory Read
 Used to read data from a specified location in main memory
 I/O Write
 Used to write data to an output device
 I/O Read
 Used to read data from an input device
 Bus Request
 Used to request for taking control of Bus
 so that requesting device can use it to transmit data
 Bus Grant
 Used by Bus controller to indicate grant of the Bus to a device
Data Communication: CPU  Memory
 Suppose  CPU wants to read data from main memory
 Control bus  "memory read" command send to main memory
 Address bus  CPU places address of memory location
 Address carried to memory
 Data from requested memory location fetched
 placed on data bus
 CPU reads data from data bus
If Number of components connected to system bus increase, then
 More components try to use System Bus at same time
 Slow down computer
 Because; components have to wait longer to get access to Bus
 Solution of Problem:
 Only major components are connected
 Remaining components are connected to another external Bus Expansion Bus
 Expansion Bus  connected to System Bus
 I/O Unit
 Input/output devices
 keyboard, mouse, scanner, monitor, printer, microphone, video camera, etc.
 Different functions
 Different data transfer rate
 Support different formats
 Impossible to connect directly to system bus
 Difficult for CPU to control directly.
 Solution  Special hardware component  I/O unit
 I/O unit  control different I/O devices
 Only I/O unit  connected to Bus
 CPU and all other devices are connected  to I/O unit
 Works as an interface between CPU & I/O devices
 Performs all I/O operations or tasks without direct involvement of CPU
 Responsible to manage speed difference between processor & I/O devices
Ways of transferring data from peripheral devices into
computer
1) Interrupts
 Signal sent by CPU  I/O device (or sent by I/O device  CPU)
 CPU issues command to I/O device for I/O operation
 When device gets ready  generates an interrupt signal to processor
 CPU on receiving interrupt signal  suspends all other processing & performs I/O operation
+ Requires no additional hardware
+ Easy to implement
- Processor suspends all other processing

- Reduces overall performance of computer system

Ways of transferring data from peripheral devices into
computer
2) DMA
 DMA  Direct Memory Access
 DMA controller  special hardware component
 Data transfer takes place without involvement of CPU
 CPU  sends request to DMA controller to perform I/O
operation
 CPU  continues to do other tasks
 When data transfer completed
 DMA controller  sends on interrupt signal to CPU
 CPU involved only at beginning & end of data transfer
+ Processor does not have to wait for completion of I/O
operation
+ Performance increased
- More complex & more hardware needed to implement
 CPU Registers
 Registers  CPU contains small, high-speed storage locations (areas)
 Used during program execution
 Temporarily hold instructions, data, or intermediate results of calculations
 Different types of registers  used for a specific purpose
 Size of registers  1, 2, 4, or 8 bytes
 Large register  increases performance of CPU
 Example: computer having 32-bit (4-bytes) registers  CPU can process four bytes of data at a time
 Types of Registers
 Special-purpose registers
 General-purpose registers
 Segment registers
 Special Purpose Registers
 Perform specific functions (special functions) during program execution
1. Program Counter (PC)
 Controls sequence in which instructions are fetched from
memory
 Holds (stores) the address of next instruction to be fetched for
execution
 When instruction fetched  value of PC incremented
register always points or holds address of next instruction
 Instruction Pointer Register
2. Instruction Register (IR)
 Stores recently fetched instruction from memory
 Control unit takes this instruction
 Special Purpose Registers
3. Memory Address Register (MAR)
 Holds address of memory where CPU wants to read/write
 When CPU wants to read/write
places address of required memory location in the MAR
4. Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
 Store data  coming from memory & going to memory
5. Stack Pointer
 Stack  set of memory blocks (data stored and retrieved in
order)
 Order  Last In, First Out (LIFO)
 Stack pointer register  used to manage stacks in memory
For example: undo & redo operations in different application software
 General-Purpose Registers
 Store data (operands), addresses of data and intermediate results of operations
 Used for arithmetic & logical operations, data movement
 Part of ALU
1. Accumulator Register (AX)
 Used for arithmetic and other data operations
2. Base Register (BX)
 Used during arithmetic, logic, and data movement operations
 Stores memory addresses of data
3. Counter Register (CX)
 Used for counting purposes
 Acts as a counter for looping
4. Data Register (DX)
 Used with Accumulator register  for division & multiplication operations
 Also used in input/output operations
 General-Purpose Registers
 General-purpose registers  EAX, EBX, ECX, and EDX
 Divided into a higher & lower byte
 Lower byte registers  AL, BL, CL, and DL
 Higher byte registers  AH, BH, CH, and DH
 A  Accumulator
 B  Base
 C  Count
 D  Data
 H  Higher
 L  Lower
 Size lower byte & higher byte  1 byte (8 bits)
 Size of AX, BX, CX, and DX  2 bytes (16 bits)
 Size of EAX, EBX, ECX, and EDX  4 bytes (32 bits)
 Modern processors use  4 bytes registers  EAX, EBX, ECX, and EDX
 Segment Registers
 Segment  A block of memory
 Segment Registers  store addresses of memory blocks that are being currently used by CPU,
Address registers
 Four segment registers  CS, DS, ES, & SS
 Size  2-bytes
 Used with IP register or with two index registers DI & SI to address various areas or blocks of memory
 CS (Code Segment)
 Holds base location of all executable instructions (code) of program
 Used along with IP register to fetch instruction
 DS (Data Segment)
 Used to store base location of memory variables
 Used along with DI or SI register to refer to data
 ES (Extra Segment)
 Used as an additional base location for memory variables
 SS (Stack Segment)
 Instruction Set
 Instruction set  A set of all instructions that a CPU can execute
 Different types of CPUs  different instruction set
 Modern CPU can execute 80 to 120 instructions
 Types of Instructions
 Data Transfer Instructions
 Arithmetic and Logical Instructions
 I/O Instructions
 Control Transfer Instructions
 Types of Instructions
1- Data Transfer Instructions
 Used to transfer data from one unit of computer to another during program execution
 Different instructions for transfer of data  provided by CPU
 Programmer use to transfer data  from RAM to CPU registers and back to RAM or to output
devices etc.
2- Arithmetic and Logical Instructions
 Arithmetic Instructions perform arithmetic operations
 Arithmetic operations addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
 Executed by ALU
 Logical Instructions  perform logical operations
 Logical operation  comparing two data values
 Executed by the ALU
 Types of Instructions
3- I/O Instructions
 Used for writing & reading data to peripheral devices
 Peripheral devices  keyboard, monitor, and disks, etc.
 programmer use  to perform I/O operations
4- Control Transfer Instructions
 Used to transfer execution control from one part of program to another during program execution
 Used to execute or ignore a set of instructions after testing a condition
 Used to execute a set of instructions repeatedly for a specified number of times
 Examples: JUMP & JUMPZ (Jump if zero)
 Instruction Format
 Instruction  statement in machine code that tells computer to do something
 Consists of a group of bits that is logically divided into different parts
 Each part performs specific action
 Structure of instruction  Instruction format
 Variety of instruction code formats
 Control unit  responsible to interpret instruction code
 provides necessary control function needed to execute instruction
 Instruction code format for general-purpose computer  16-bits
 General format of instruction  Opcode [Addresses of Operands]
 Parts of Instruction code format
 Opcode (operation code)  indicates type of action or operation (addition, multiplication, subtraction,
division, etc.). It takes 4 bits

 Addresses of operands  indicates addresses of operands in memory

 Various Instruction Code Formats
 Different instructions  different addresses
 Instruction divided according to addresses used
1- Zero-Address Instruction Format
 No address field
 Stack-organized computer  instructions like ADD & MUL
 instructions like PUSH & POP  need address field to specify operand (stack)
 For example: ADD instruction  used without specifying any memory address
 Instruction takes values from stack, adds them, and returns result to stack
2- One-Address Instruction Format
 Only one address field
 Uses accumulator register for all data calculations or manipulations
 However, second register is required for multiplication & division
 Various Instruction Code Formats

3- Two-Address Instruction Format

 Uses two address fields
 Each specify either a register or a memory address
 Most common format
 Examples: MOV, ADD, CMP, and BIS
4- Three-Address Instruction Format
 Uses three address fields
 Each specify either a register or a memory address
+ Takes less execution time
- Binary-coded instructions require too many bits to specify three addresses
 Fetch - Decode - Execute Cycle
 fetch- decode- execute cycle (FDX), instruction cycle  Process by which
 CPU fetches a program instruction from memory
 decodes instruction
 executes it
 CPU works by following FDX cycle to execute all instructions
 When program is to be executed
 Instructions & data loaded  from disk into main memory
 Address of first instruction  copied into PC register
 Control given to CPU for execution
 Fetch - Decode - Execute Cycle
1) Fetch Instruction
 CPU fetches instruction & data from memory by
 Copies memory address from PC  MAR
 Sends memory read command to main memory
 Copies data from main memory  MBR & instruction  IR (instruction register)
 Value of PC incremented (point to next instruction)
2) Decode Instruction
 CPU decodes instruction by analyzing opcode of instruction
 Also reads values of operands specified in instruction
 Actually, necessary circuits are activated that are required to execute instruction
3) Execute Instruction
 CPU executes instruction by using activated circuits
 CPU generates control signals needed for execution & sends these signals to relevant units (perform action)
 For example:
 control unit passes data & decoded instruction to ALU
 ALU  performs mathematical or logic operations on data according to instruction code
 Results are written in registers & memory
 Port
 Peripheral devices connected to system unit through a special device 
Port
 Port  interface or connecting point
 Provide a standard way of communication between computer and its
peripheral devices
 Example: keyboard, mouse, printer, monitor, & modem connected
with computer by plugging their connectors into ports
 Computer or mobile device  different types of ports
 Example: desktop personal computer  different ports on its front and
back
 Types of Port
i) Serial Port
 Transmits one bit at a time
 communication (COM) port
 Slow data transmission
 Data transmission rate  115 Kbps or more
 Serial port  mouse, keyboard, and modem are connected
 do not require fast data transmission
 Not used today
 Types of Port
ii) Parallel Port
 Transmits many bits at a time
 Faster data transmission than serial port
 Data transmission rate  up to 12 Mbps or more
 Parallel port  printer and scanner connected
 Line Printer Ports (LPT)
 Not used in modern computers
 Parallel and serial ports  replaced with USB ports
 Types of Port
iii) USB Port
 USB  Universal Serial Bus
 Most popular standard port used in PCs
 Single connector  allows up to 127 peripheral devices to be connected
 Examples: keyboard, mouse, printer, scanner, digital camera, speakers, card reader,
smartphone, USB flash drives, & external hard disk
 USB ports in personal computers  typically 6 to 8 either on front or back
 Also be used as a power supply for different devices
 such as smartphones & tablets
Operating System
Q.23 What is operating system? Name some important operating systems.
 Operating System
 A set of system programs that controls & coordinates overall operations of a computer system
(or mobile device)
 Computer needs an operating system to do work
 Computer cannot operate without OS
 Without OS, computer is like a car with no fuel
 OS must be installed on computer to perform different tasks
 When computer is turned on, OS loaded into main memory from disk
 Performs various functions residing in main memory
 Tasks of OS
 Provides user-interface
 Accepts input from input devices
 Sends output to output devices
 Manages the application programs in memory
 Organizes data on storage devices
 Performs memory management tasks

 Operating System
 Controls overall hardware to perform various operations
 Provides most common functions needed by users & programmers
 Users & programmers  request hardware through OS
 OS provides an interface to users & programmers
 Important Operating Systems
 Microsoft Windows
 UNIX
 Linux
 Mac OS
 Solaris
 Functions of Operating System
1. Booting
 OS starts computer and makes it ready to work
 Process of starting or restarting a computer  booting
2. Manage Hardware Resources
 Different applications (or programs) try to use various hardware resources at same time
 OS is responsible for allocating & managing various resources for different applications
3. Memory Management
 Data & program must be loaded into main memory for execution
 Different programs & data can be loaded at the same time
 OS manages and allocates memory to different programs
 OS carefully monitors contents of memory
 When program terminates its execution  OS de-allocates (clears) memory area and its related data
4. Loading and Executing Programs
 Program loaded into main memory for execution
 OS provides facility for loading program into memory and for starting its execution
 Functions of Operating System
5. Data Security
 OS provides facility to protect important data against illegal access and modification (unauthorized access).
6. Providing User-Interface
 OS provides an interface between user & computer
 User interacts with computer through OS
 User requests computer through OS to perform specific task
 Command-line User Interface
 provides a prompt line on computer screen
 User communicates  by typing commands through keyboard
 Difficult interface
 Example: MS-DOS operating system
 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
 provides graphical images on computer screen
 Images  icons or command buttons
 Example: application programs, commands, disk drives, files, etc. in form of icons
 User communicates  by clicking icons with a pointing device (such as mouse)
 GUI  easy to interact
 Example: Microsoft Windows
 Programming Languages
 Provides way of communication between user & computer
 Computer program written in programming language
 Various programming languages
 Example:
 programming languages  for writing business programs
 programming languages  for writing scientific programs
 Syntax  set of rules of a specific programming language to write a computer program
 Program instructions are written according to these rules
 Types of Programming language
 Low-level languages
 High-level languages
 Types of Programming Languages
1- Low-Level Languages
 Near to machine language (0s and 1s)
 Difficult to learn and use
 because instructions are written in binary form and symbolic form
 Examples: machine language & assembly language
(i) Machine Language
 Instructions are written in binary form (in form of 1s and 0s)
 Fundamental language of computer
 Computer only understands machine language
 No need to translate
 because; already in machine code i.e. binary form
(ii) Assembly Language
 Easier to learn and use than machine language
 Instructions are written by using short names or symbols  mnemonics
 Example: ADD for addition, MUL for multiplication, and SUB for subtraction
 Types of Programming Languages
2- High-Level Languages
 Near to human languages
 Easy to learn and use
 Instructions written in English like words  print and input etc.
 Language has its own rules or grammar for writing program
 Computer cannot understand program written in any high-level language
 Must be translated to machine code before running on computer
 Language has its own translator program
 Examples: BASIC, FORTRAN, C & C++, Java, Pascal, Visual Basic, and COBOL.
Source Code
 Program written in any high-level programming language or
assembly language
 Cannot be executed directly by computer
 Must be converted into machine code before running it on computer
Object Code
 Computer understands only machine code
 Source code  high-level languages and assembly language code
 Must be translated into machine code before running it on computer
 Translated program into machine code  object code
 Language Translator
 System software that translates source code into machine code
(object code)
 language processor
 Every programming language (except machine language) has
its own language translator
 Computer only understands instructions in machine code (i.e.
0’s and 1’s)
 Difficult to write program directly in machine code
 Mostly programs are written in high-level languages
 such as C/C++, Java, and BASIC
 Must be translated into machine code before running on
 Language Translator
1- Compiler
 Translates source code into machine code (object code) as a whole
 Examples: C and C++ translators
 Compiler  analyzes source code & checks errors
 If no error  translates source code into object code (machine code)
 If error  specifies errors and does not translate
 Language Translator
2- Interpreter
 Translates & executes statements of a source code one by one
 Translates one statement & executes it immediately
 before translating next statement
 Process continued up to end of the program
 If error  terminates translating process at that statement
 Also displays an error message
 Example: GW-BASIC translator
+ Easier to detect & correct errors in source program
- Time-consuming process
- Does not produce object code
- Each time program run  source code translated again
- Must have a Interpreter permanently on our computer
3- Assembler
 Translates program written in assembly language into machine code
 Compiler Interpreter

 Translates as a whole  Translates statement-by-

 Creates an object file statement
 Fast  Doesnot create an
program
execution object file
 Translated  Slow program execution
only once
 Not  Translatedeach time to
easier to correct
errors run the program
 Easier to correct errors
 Primary Memory Secondary Memory

 Temporary memory  Permanent memory

 Use to store during data  Use to store permanently for
processing later use
 Volatile memory  Non-volatile memory
 Smaller storage capacity  Larger
storage capacity than
than secondary memory primary memory
 Highdata accessing  Slow data accessing speed
speed  Not directly accessed by
 Directly accessed by CPU CPU