Thermal Engineering

–I
(ME 203)

Chapter 3: Introduction to Boilers

 Syllabus

• Classification of boilers,
• Boiler mountings
• And accessories;
• Draft systems,
• Circulation system;
• Combustion and its calculations, and
• Boiler performance.
 What is Boiler?
• A boiler (also known as a steam boiler) is a closed vessel in which fluid (typically
water) is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil. The heated or vaporized fluid
exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, such as cooking,
water or central heating, or boiler-based power generation. Boilers (or more
specifically steam boilers) are an essential part of thermal power plants.

Working Principle of Boiler

• The basic working principle of boiler is very very simple and easy to understand.
The boiler is essentially a closed vessel inside which water is stored. Fuel (generally
coal) is burnt in a furnace and hot gasses are produced.
• These hot gasses come in contact with water vessel where the heat of these hot gases
transfer to the water and consequently steam is produced in the boiler.
• Then this steam is piped to the turbine of thermal power plant. There are
many different types of boiler utilized for different purposes like running a
production unit, sanitizing some area, sterilizing equipment, to warm up the
surroundings etc.
The steam generated is used for the following purposes:
(a) For generating power in thermal power plant
(b) For heating a building in cold weather
(c) For process work in industries
• In steam power plants, steam is used to run steam turbine coupled with a
generator to generate electrical energy. The high-temperature steam is used for
the purpose of heating rooms in cold climate. As a process steam, it is used in
textile industries. It is also used in paper mills and chemical industries.
• The main function of a steam boiler is to supply steam at almost constant
pressure as desired with its possibly in three qualities: wet steam or dry
saturated steam or superheated steam. Superheated steam is the best amongst the
three categories. The steam is essentially supplied at constant pressure by
maintaining the rate of steam generation and supply of feed water. This way the
water level inside the vessel is maintained constant.
(i) Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers:
Fire tube boilers are those boilers in which hot gases
produced by the combination of fuel in the boiler
furnace while on their way to chimney pass through a
number of tubes (called fuel tubes or smoke tubes)
which are immersed in water. Heat is transferred from
the hot gasses to water through the walls of tubes.
Example of fire tube boilers are Cochran boiler,
locomotive boiler, Cornish etc.
Fire tubes boilers are also known as a smoke tube
boiler.

Water-tube boilers are those boilers in which water

flows through a number of tubes (called water tubes)
and the hot gases produced by the combustion of fuel
in the boiler furnace while on their way to chimney
pass surrounding the tubes.
The heat from the hot gases is transferred to the water
through the walls of the water tubes.
Examples of water tube boilers are Bab-cock and (a) Fire tube (b) Water Tube
Wilcox boiler, Benson boiler, etc.
Fire Tube Boiler:
(a) Hot gases formed after the combustion of fuel
Water Tube Boiler:
flow through tubes and water surrounds these
(a) Water flows inside the tubes and gas surrounds
tubes.
these tubes.
(b) Internally fired.
(b) Externally fired.
(c) Working pressure limited to 20 bars.
(c) Working pressure may be as high as 150 bars.
(d) Steam generation rate is lower.
(d) Steam generation rate is higher.
(e) For a given power, it occupies large floor area.
(e) For a given power, it occupies lesser floor area.
(f) Not suitable for large power plants.
(f) Suitable for large power plants
(g) It carries lot of risk on less working pressure.
(g) Less risk on explosion due to high working
(h) Different parts cannot be separated easily,
pressure.
hence it becomes difficult to transport.
(i) Water treatment is not necessary.
(j) Parts are not so accessible for cleaning and
inspection.
(ii) High-, Medium-, and Low-Pressure Boilers:
(a) High-Pressure Boilers:
• The boiler which produces steam of more than 70 bar of pressure is known as high-pressure
boiler. The efficiency of fire tube boilers has been found quite low. The generation of steam
at high pressure and high temperature is not possible in a fire tube boiler.
• The conventional water tube boilers such as Babcock and Wilcox water boilers even though
can generate steam at high pressure with high steam generation rate, they have been found
unsuitable. Babcock and Wilcox water boilers have undergone a vast change to generate
high-pressure steam at a high rate of steam generation.
(c) Medium-Pressure Boilers:
• The boiler which produces steam between 20 and 70 bars is known as medium-pressure
boiler.
(d) Low-Pressure Boilers:
• The boiler which produces steam of less than 20 bars is known as low-pressure boiler.
(iii) Single Tube and Multi Tube Boilers:
• The fire tube boilers may have single or multi tubes. Lancashire boiler is a fire tube boiler with a
single tube in which hot gases move. Cochran boiler is a fire tube boiler called as multi tube boiler
because it has large number of fire tubes.
(iv) Stationary and Portable Boilers:
Stationary boilers are used for power plants where the boilers are installed permanently and cannot be
moved. Locomotive boilers are called portable or mobile boilers
(v) Coal-, Oil-, and Gas-Fired Boilers:
• Three types of fuel are used in steam boilers:
(a) Coal in solid form,
(b) Crude oil products in liquid form, and
(c) Gaseous form.
Coal is the most widely used fuels. This is the cheapest fuel and easy to handle. Coal in lumps is
handled by a stoker which requires a grate at the bottom of the furnace to hold fuels. Most modern
boilers use powdered coal known as pulverized coal that enters the furnace of the boiler through
(vi) Externally Fired and Internally Fired Boilers:
• Externally fired boiler is one in which the combustion of fuel takes place
outside the shell and hot gases formed enter the space to heat up the tube
surface such as Babcock and Wilcox water tube boilers.
• Internally fired boiler is the one in which the furnace is located inside the
boiler shell itself such as Cochran and Lancashire fire tube boilers.
(vii) Natural and Forced Circulation Boiler:
Natural or Free Circulation Boiler:
All conventional boilers, generally low-pressure boilers, in which the circulation of water is done by
thermo-symphonic method, are known as natural circulation boilers In natural circulation boiler, the
circulation of water takes place due to natural convection current and density variation of fluid by the
application of heat, i.e., thermo-siphon.
This is based on the principle that the density of water is more than steam and as such requires a boiler
drum. The method is effective only up to a pressure less than 20 bar. After this pressure, the difference
in density of water and steam becomes less and so this system fails to work.
In boilers like Lancashire, Babcock, and Wilcox, etc. free circulation of water takes place.
Advantages of free circulation:
• Free circulation of water helps to maintain a uniform temperature through everywhere within the
boiler so that unequal expansion of various parts of the boiler is prevented.
• Free circulation of water facilitates the escape of steam from the heating surface as soon as it formed.
If steam does not escape quickly after its formation the boilerplates do not remain constantly in touch
Forced Circulation:
In forced circulation type boilers, the circulation of water
inside the tube is done by a forced circulating pump. Water is
forced inside the tube by mechanical means. This method is
applicable in high-capacity water tube boilers. The forced
circulation system is adopted in more high pressure, high
capacity boilers of all of which are water tube type boiler.
Advantages of forced circulation:
The advantages of forced circulation are:
• The rate of heat transfer from the flue gases to the water
higher.
• Tubes having comparatively smaller diameters can be
used. This reduces the overall weight of the boiler.
• The number of boiler drums required may be reduced.
• less scale formation in the boilers is required.
• Steam can be quickly generated.
• The fluctuation of load can be easily met without taking
the help of any complicated controlled device.
• Chance of overheating of the boilerplates in minimum.
• Weight per unit mass of steam generated is less.

Natural Convention
• Boiler mountings:
These are the fittings, which are necessarily mounted on the boiler itself and
mandatorily required for the safe and proper operation of boiler.
• Water level indicator:
The water level indicator located in front of the boiler
in such a position that the level of water can easily be
seen by the attendent.

Water level indicator is fitted outside the boiler shell

to indicate the water level in the boiler through a glass
tube.
 .
Pressure gauge:
A pressure gauge is fitted in front of a
boiler in such a position that the operater
can conveniently read it. It reads the
pressure of steam in the boiler and is
connected to the steam space by a siphon
tube.
Safety valve:
The safety valve is a relief valve which prevents
the boiler pressure from
raising over its normal working pressure by
automatically opening when the boiler pressure
exceeds the normal working pressure, thus
allowing excess
steam to escape into the atmosphere until the
pressure comes down on its
normal value.
Thus, a safety valve ensures safety to a boiler from
being damaged due to
excessive steam pressure.
It also ensures safety to a pipe or vessel containing
water under high pressure.
Fusible plug:
The function of a fusible plug is to ensure safety to the boiler from being damaged by
overheating due to water level falling very low in the boiler.
Steam stop valve:
The function of a steam stop valve (this is called main stop valve) is to control the flow of
steam from within the boiler and to stop it completely when required.
Blow-off valve or blow-down valve:
The function of a blow–off valve is to remove periodically the sediments deposited at the
bottom of the boiler while the boiler is in operation and to empty the boiler while it is to be
cleaned or inspected. When the blow-off valve is opened the water which is under the pressure
of steam, rushes out with tremendous velocity thus crying out the sediments along with it.
Feed check valve:
The function of a feed check valve is to control the flow of water from the feed pump to the
boiler and to prevent the backflow of water from the boiler to the pump when the pump
Boiler accessories:
• Boiler accessories are those appliances and plants which are installed along with
a boiler to improve the operating condition and overall efficiency of the boiler
plant.
• There are several boiler accessories, and those are:
1. Economizer
2. Super heater
3. Steam separator
4. Steam trap
5. Feed pump
6. Injector
(a) Economizer:
The purpose of economizer is to heat the feed water
by the direct use of the heat of flue gas discharged to
the atmosphere through chimney. The economizer
reduces the temperature of flue gas. The feed water
temperature is increased substantially.
Thus, there is a saving in heat. The boiler efficiency is
increased substantially. The economizer is placed in
the path of the exit gas nearer to the boiler. Next to it,
another accessory, i.e., air preheater, will be installed
in the passage.
Advantages:
Saving of fuel
The increase in the evaporative capacity of the boiler.
The long life of the boiler.
(b) Air Preheater:
The purpose of air preheater is to heat the air before it
is supplied to the furnace of the boiler for combustion
by the use of heat of flue gas. Supply of the preheated
air into the furnace produces high furnace
temperature and accelerates the combustion of fuel.
Since the heat of the exit gases cannot be fully utilized
through the economizer, the air preheater is employed
to recover some of the heat escaping in these gases.
The thermal efficiency of the plant will be increased.
The air preheater is installed in between the
economizer and the chimney.
(c) Superheaters:
Superheaters are used in the boiler installation to
increase the temperature of steam above the saturation
temperature. Superheated steam is characterized by the
temperature of its vapors which is increased above the
boiling point at that pressure. To achieve this, the steam
is allowed to pass through a bank of tubes called
superheater tubes exposed to the flue gas.
The heat absorbed from the furnace radiation or
combustion of hot gases first evaporates the moisture
carried over with the steam and then superheats the
steam to the desired temperature. Superheating the steam
raises the overall efficiency of the plant. Superheated
steam is absolutely essential for steam power plant.
The following are the advantages of superheated
steam:
(a) It reduces the losses due to condensation in pipes,
steam engine cylinder, and steam turbine casing.
(b) It eliminates the possibilities of the turbine blades
getting eroded due to the presence of condensate in the
last stages of the turbine.
(d) Feed Pump:
A feed pump is a device to supply feed water with high pressure into the boiler for the generation of steam. The pressure created
by the pump may be 6-10% more than the boiler steam pressure.
There are two types of pumps which are in common practice:
(a) Reciprocating pump and
(b) Centrifugal pump.
(e) Injector:
Injector is a device to supply feed water to the boiler by the direct use of steam already generated by the boiler. It can be used
only when the boiler is in operation. It is installed in the feed lines. It is installed very close to the steam turbine in the main pipe
lines.
(f) Steam Separator:
A steam separator is used to separate the water particle from the steam flowing in the steam pipe. The efficiency of steam power
plant is higher with the use of superheated steam. This is to make steam dry by separating condensate.
(g) Steam Trap:
When the steam flows inside the steam pipe, the condensation of steam becomes inevitable due to the loss of heat. The purpose
of the steam trap is to drain off the condensate collected in the steam pipe.
Boiler D r a u g h t
 The draught is one of the most essential systems of thermal power plant which supplies required quantity of air
for combustion and removes the burnt products from the system.
 To move the air through the fuel bed and to produce a flow of hot gases through the boiler, economizer, preheater
and chimney require a difference of pressure.
 This difference of pressure for maintaining the constant flow of air and discharging the gases through the chimney
to atmosphere is known as DRAUGHT.

Inportance
 Draught also provides velocity to flue gases and so increases the heat transfer co-efficient in the boiler.
 For the proper and the optimized heat transfer from the flue gases to the boiler tubes draught holds a relatively

high amount of significance.

 The combustion rate of the flue gases and the amount of heat transfer to the boiler are both dependent on
the movement and motion of the flue gases.
 A boiler equipped with a combustion chamber which has a strong current of air (draught) through the
fuel bed will increase the rate of combustion.
Natural draught
 Natural draught is obtained naturally by the use of a
chimney.
 Chimney is a conical shape vertical tubular steel or masonry
or concrete structure having a large height.
 The exhaust gases are lighter in weight than outside air
and so lifts up naturally in the chimney and finally
escape out in the atmosphere from top of the chimney.
 As flue gases flow through boiler and then to chimney,
fresh air from outside naturally enters the boiler.
 So, in this way, a small pressure difference is naturally
created between the base of chimney and the air inlet
point of boiler because of density difference between hot
flue gases inside the chimney and fresh colder air
outside the chimney. This pressure difference is called
natural draught.
Advantages of Natural Draught Limitations of Natural Draught
 The Draught required for the flow of air &  Pressure :- Maximum is 15 – 20 mm of water
gas inside the boiler is created by Chimney. under normal atmospheric Temp.
It does not require any external power for  The draught decreases with increase in outside
producing the draught. air temperature and for producing sufficient
 The capital investment is less. draught.
 It has long life.  The flue gases have to be discharged at
 Chimney is also useful to safely remove the comparatively high temperatures resulting in the

harmful poisonous flue gases in the loss of overall plant efficiency. And thus

atmosphere at a safe height, where they maximum utilization of Heat is not possible.

may not harm the freshness of air on  Combustion is very poor.

Forced draught
⚫ It is a positive pressure draught in which fan is installed at the base of the boiler before grate.
⚫ Fan forces the outside air through fuel bed, furnace and air pre- heater and then flue gases
through flue passage, economizer, Air- preheater and then to chimney.
⚫ The enclosure for the furnace has to be very tightly sealed so that gases from the furnace do not
leak out in the boiler house.
Induced draught
⚫ In this system a fan or blower is located at or near the base of the chimney which creates a
partial vacuum in the furnace and flue passage.
⚫ Thus, the air and flue gases are drawn through the boiler due to comparatively higher pressure of
outside air.
⚫ It is convenient to produce induced draught and like in forced draught, any type of
fan/blower may be used.
 Forced Draught Induced Draught

 Pressure inside the flue passages is  Pressure inside the flue passages is slightly less
slightly more than atmospheric than atmospheric pressure.
pressure.  D ue to above reason, there is no danger of fire to
 D ue to above reason, there is serious come out from boiler flue passage in case of a
danger of fire to come out and injure leakage. Hence Induced draught is more safe.
someone if any leakage in boiler flue  It sucks the hot flue gases from the combustion
passage take place. chamber through flue passages and then passes on
 It forces fresh air into the combustion these to economizer, air pre heater and chimney. D ue
chamber, which helps in burning of fuel to this suction, fresh air is also sucked in to
and production of hot combustion gases. combustion chamber.
D ue to this force, the hot flue gases are  Induced draught fan requires more power because it has
further pushed through the flue passages to handle hot flue gases, the volume per unit mass of
in boiler. which is more.
 Forced draught fan require less power  Flow of flue gases is less uniform
because it has to handle cold and dense air,
the volume per unit mass of which is less.

 Boiler performance
• Purpose of the Performance Test
• To find out the efficiency of the boiler
• To find out the Evaporation ratio
• The purpose of the performance test is to determine actual performance and efficiency of the
boiler and compare it with design values or norms. It is an indicator for tracking day-to-day
and season-to-season variations in boiler efficiency and energy efficiency improvements.
The Direct input testing
• This is also known as ’input-output method’ due to the fact that it needs only the useful
output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency.

Both heat input and heat output must be

measured. The measurement of heat
input requires knowledge of the calorific
value of the fuel and its flow rate in
terms of mass or volume, according to
the nature of the fuel.
Boiler Efficiency by Direct Method: Calculation and Example

Water consumption and coal consumption were

measured in a coal-fired boiler at hourly intervals.
Weighed quantities of coal were fed to the boiler
during the trial period. Simultaneously water level
difference was noted to calculate steam generation
during the trial period. Blow down was avoided
during the test. The measured data is shown here.
The various heat losses occurring in the boiler