Chapter 4 – Requirements Engineering

Lecture 1

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 1

Topics covered

 Functional and non-functional requirements

 The software requirements document
 Requirements specification
 Requirements engineering processes
 Requirements elicitation and analysis
 Requirements validation
 Requirements management

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 2

Requirements engineering

 The process of establishing the services that the

customer requires from a system and the constraints
under which it operates and is developed.
 The requirements themselves are the descriptions of the
system services and constraints that are generated
during the requirements engineering process.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 3

What is a requirement?

 It may range from a high-level abstract statement of a

service or of a system constraint to a detailed
mathematical functional specification.
 This is inevitable as requirements may serve a dual
function
 May be the basis for a bid for a contract - therefore must be
open to interpretation;
 May be the basis for the contract itself - therefore must be
defined in detail;
 Both these statements may be called requirements.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 4

Requirements abstraction (Davis)

“If a company wishes to let a contract for a large software development

project, it must define its needs in a sufficiently abstract way that a
solution is not pre-defined. The requirements must be written so that
several contractors can bid for the contract, offering, perhaps, different
ways of meeting the client organization’s needs. Once a contract has
been awarded, the contractor must write a system definition for the
client in more detail so that the client understands and can validate what
the software will do. Both of these documents may be called the
requirements document for the system.”

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 5

Types of requirement

 User requirements
 Statements in natural language plus diagrams of the services
the system provides and its operational constraints. Written for
customers.
 System requirements
 A structured document setting out detailed descriptions of the
system’s functions, services and operational constraints. Defines
what should be implemented so may be part of a contract
between client and contractor.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 6

User and system requirements

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 7

Readers of different types of requirements specification

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 8

Functional and non-functional requirements

 Functional requirements
 Statements of services the system should provide, how the
system should react to particular inputs and how the system
should behave in particular situations.
 May state what the system should not do.
 Non-functional requirements
 Constraints on the services or functions offered by the system
such as timing constraints, constraints on the development
process, standards, etc.
 Often apply to the system as a whole rather than individual
features or services.
 Domain requirements
 Constraints on the system from the domain of operation
Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 9
Functional requirements

 Describe functionality or system services.

 Depend on the type of software, expected users and the
type of system where the software is used.
 Functional user requirements may be high-level
statements of what the system should do.
 Functional system requirements should describe the
system services in detail.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 10

Functional requirements for the MHC-PMS

 A user shall be able to search the appointments lists for

all clinics.
 The system shall generate each day, for each clinic, a list
of patients who are expected to attend appointments that
day.
 Each staff member using the system shall be uniquely
identified by his or her 8-digit employee number.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 11

Requirements imprecision

 Problems arise when requirements are not precisely

stated.
 Ambiguous requirements may be interpreted in different
ways by developers and users.
 Consider the term ‘search’ in requirement 1
 User intention – search for a patient name across all
appointments in all clinics;
 Developer interpretation – search for a patient name in an
individual clinic. User chooses clinic then search.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 12

Requirements completeness and consistency

 In principle, requirements should be both complete and

consistent.
 Complete
 They should include descriptions of all facilities required.
 Consistent
 There should be no conflicts or contradictions in the descriptions
of the system facilities.
 In practice, it is impossible to produce a complete and
consistent requirements document.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 13

Non-functional requirements

 These define system properties and constraints e.g.

reliability, response time and storage requirements.
Constraints are I/O device capability, system
representations, etc.
 Process requirements may also be specified mandating
a particular IDE, programming language or development
method.
 Non-functional requirements may be more critical than
functional requirements. If these are not met, the system
may be useless.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 14

Types of nonfunctional requirement

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 15

Non-functional requirements implementation

 Non-functional requirements may affect the overall

architecture of a system rather than the individual
components.
 For example, to ensure that performance requirements are met,
you may have to organize the system to minimize
communications between components.
 A single non-functional requirement, such as a security
requirement, may generate a number of related
functional requirements that define system services that
are required.
 It may also generate requirements that restrict existing
requirements.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 16

Non-functional classifications

 Product requirements
 Requirements which specify that the delivered product must
behave in a particular way e.g. execution speed, reliability, etc.
 Organisational requirements
 Requirements which are a consequence of organisational
policies and procedures e.g. process standards used,
implementation requirements, etc.
 External requirements
 Requirements which arise from factors which are external to the
system and its development process e.g. interoperability
requirements, legislative requirements, etc.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 17

Examples of nonfunctional requirements in the MHC-PMS

Product requirement
The MHC-PMS shall be available to all clinics during normal working
hours (Mon–Fri, 0830–17.30). Downtime within normal working hours
shall not exceed five seconds in any one day.

Organizational requirement
Users of the MHC-PMS system shall authenticate themselves using
their health authority identity card.

External requirement
The system shall implement patient privacy provisions as set out in
HStan-03-2006-priv.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 18

Goals and requirements

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 19

Metrics for specifying nonfunctional requirements

Property Measure
Speed Processed transactions/second
User/event response time
Screen refresh time
Size Mbytes
Number of ROM chips
Ease of use Training time
Number of help frames
Reliability Mean time to failure
Probability of unavailability
Rate of failure occurrence
Availability
Robustness Time to restart after failure
Percentage of events causing failure
Probability of data corruption on failure
Portability Percentage of target dependent statements
Number of target systems

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 20

The software requirements document

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 21

Users of a requirements document

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 22

Requirements document variability

 Information in requirements document depends on type

of system and the approach to development used.
 Systems developed incrementally will, typically, have
less detail in the requirements document.
 Requirements documents standards have been
designed e.g. IEEE standard. These are mostly
applicable to the requirements for large systems
engineering projects.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 23

The structure of a requirements document

Chapter Description
Preface This should define the expected readership of the document and describe
its version history, including a rationale for the creation of a new version
and a summary of the changes made in each version.
Introduction This should describe the need for the system. It should briefly describe the
system’s functions and explain how it will work with other systems. It
should also describe how the system fits into the overall business or
strategic objectives of the organization commissioning the software.
Glossary This should define the technical terms used in the document. You should
not make assumptions about the experience or expertise of the reader.
User requirements Here, you describe the services provided for the user. The nonfunctional
definition system requirements should also be described in this section. This
description may use natural language, diagrams, or other notations that
are understandable to customers. Product and process standards that
must be followed should be specified.
System architecture This chapter should present a high-level overview of the anticipated
system architecture, showing the distribution of functions across system
modules. Architectural components that are reused should be highlighted.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 24

The structure of a requirements document

Chapter Description
System This should describe the functional and nonfunctional requirements in more
requirements detail. If necessary, further detail may also be added to the nonfunctional
specification requirements. Interfaces to other systems may be defined.
System models This might include graphical system models showing the relationships between
the system components and the system and its environment. Examples of
possible models are object models, data-flow models, or semantic data models.

System evolution This should describe the fundamental assumptions on which the system is
based, and any anticipated changes due to hardware evolution, changing user
needs, and so on. This section is useful for system designers as it may help them
avoid design decisions that would constrain likely future changes to the system.

Appendices These should provide detailed, specific information that is related to the
application being developed; for example, hardware and database descriptions.
Hardware requirements define the minimal and optimal configurations for the
system. Database requirements define the logical organization of the data used
by the system and the relationships between data.

Index Several indexes to the document may be included. As well as a normal

alphabetic index, there may be an index of diagrams, an index of functions, and
so on.
Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 25
Requirements specification

 The process of writing don the user and system

requirements in a requirements document.
 User requirements have to be understandable by end-
users and customers who do not have a technical
background.
 System requirements are more detailed requirements
and may include more technical information.
 The requirements may be part of a contract for the
system development
 It is therefore important that these are as complete as possible.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 26

Ways of writing a system requirements specification

Notation Description
Natural language The requirements are written using numbered sentences in natural
language. Each sentence should express one requirement.

Structured natural The requirements are written in natural language on a standard form or
language template. Each field provides information about an aspect of the
requirement.
Design description This approach uses a language like a programming language, but with more
languages abstract features to specify the requirements by defining an operational
model of the system. This approach is now rarely used although it can be
useful for interface specifications.

Graphical notations Graphical models, supplemented by text annotations, are used to define the
functional requirements for the system; UML use case and sequence
diagrams are commonly used.
Mathematical These notations are based on mathematical concepts such as finite-state
specifications machines or sets. Although these unambiguous specifications can reduce
the ambiguity in a requirements document, most customers don’t
understand a formal specification. They cannot check that it represents what
they want and are reluctant to accept it as a system contract

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 27

Requirements and design
Natural language specification

 Requirements are written as natural language sentences

supplemented by diagrams and tables.
 Used for writing requirements because it is expressive,
intuitive and universal. This means that the requirements
can be understood by users and customers.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 29

Guidelines for writing requirements
Problems with natural language
Requirements engineering processes

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 32

A spiral view of the requirements engineering
process

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 33

Requirements elicitation and analysis

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 34

Problems of requirements analysis

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 35

Requirements elicitation and analysis

 Software engineers work with a range of system

stakeholders to find out about the application domain,
the services that the system should provide, the required
system performance, hardware constraints, other
systems, etc.
 Stages include:
 Requirements discovery,
 Requirements classification and organization,
 Requirements prioritization and negotiation,
 Requirements specification.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 36

The requirements elicitation and analysis process

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 37

Process activities
Problems of requirements elicitation
Requirements discovery

 The process of gathering information about the required

and existing systems and distilling the user and system
requirements from this information.
 Interaction is with system stakeholders from managers to
external regulators.
 Systems normally have a range of stakeholders.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 40

Stakeholders in the MHC-PMS

 Patients whose information is recorded in the system.

 Doctors who are responsible for assessing and treating
patients.
 Nurses who coordinate the consultations with doctors
and administer some treatments.
 Medical receptionists who manage patients’
appointments.
 IT staff who are responsible for installing and maintaining
the system.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 41

Stakeholders in the MHC-PMS

 A medical ethics manager who must ensure that the

system meets current ethical guidelines for patient care.
 Health care managers who obtain management
information from the system.
 Medical records staff who are responsible for ensuring
that system information can be maintained and
preserved, and that record keeping procedures have
been properly implemented.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 42

Interviewing

 Formal or informal interviews with stakeholders are part

of most RE processes.
 Types of interview
 Closed interviews based on pre-determined list of questions
 Open interviews where various issues are explored with
stakeholders.
 Effective interviewing
 Be open-minded, avoid pre-conceived ideas about the
requirements and are willing to listen to stakeholders.
 Prompt the interviewee to get discussions going using a
springboard question, a requirements proposal, or by working
together on a prototype system.
Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 43
Interviews in practice
Scenarios
Scenario for collecting medical history in MHC-PMS

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 46

Scenario for collecting medical history in MHC-PMS

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 47

Use cases for the MHC-PMS

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 48

Requirements validation

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 49

Requirements checking

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 50

Requirements validation techniques

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 51

Requirements reviews

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 52

Review checks

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 53

Requirements management

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 54

Changing requirements

 The business and technical environment of the system

always changes after installation.
 New hardware may be introduced, it may be necessary to
interface the system with other systems, business priorities may
change (with consequent changes in the system support
required), and new legislation and regulations may be introduced
that the system must necessarily abide by.
 The people who pay for a system and the users of that
system are rarely the same people.
 System customers impose requirements because of
organizational and budgetary constraints. These may conflict
with end-user requirements and, after delivery, new features
may have to be added for user support if the system is to meet
its goals.
Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 55
Changing requirements

 Large systems usually have a diverse user community,

with many users having different requirements and
priorities that may be conflicting or contradictory.
 The final system requirements are inevitably a compromise
between them and, with experience, it is often discovered that
the balance of support given to different users has to be
changed.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 56

Requirements evolution

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 57

 Requirements management planning

 Establishes the level of requirements management detail

that is required.
 Requirements management decisions:
 Requirements identification Each requirement must be uniquely
identified so that it can be cross-referenced with other requirements.
 A change management process This is the set of activities that
assess the impact and cost of changes. I discuss this process in
more detail in the following section.
 Traceability policies These policies define the relationships between
each requirement and between the requirements and the system
design that should be recorded.
 Tool support Tools that may be used range from specialist
requirements management systems to spreadsheets and simple
database systems.
Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 58
Requirements change management

 Deciding if a requirements change should be accepted

 Problem analysis and change specification
• During this stage, the problem or the change proposal is analyzed to
check that it is valid. This analysis is fed back to the change
requestor who may respond with a more specific requirements
change proposal, or decide to withdraw the request.
 Change analysis and costing
• The effect of the proposed change is assessed using traceability
information and general knowledge of the system requirements.
Once this analysis is completed, a decision is made whether or not
to proceed with the requirements change.
 Change implementation
• The requirements document and, where necessary, the system
design and implementation, are modified. Ideally, the document
should be organized so that changes can be easily implemented.
Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 59
Requirements change management

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 60

Key points

 You can use a range of techniques for requirements

elicitation including interviews, scenarios, use-cases and
ethnography.
 Requirements validation is the process of checking the
requirements for validity, consistency, completeness,
realism and verifiability.
 Business, organizational and technical changes
inevitably lead to changes to the requirements for a
software system. Requirements management is the
process of managing and controlling these changes.

Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 61

Key points

 Requirements for a software system set out what the

system should do and define constraints on its operation
and implementation.
 Functional requirements are statements of the services
that the system must provide or are descriptions of how
some computations must be carried out.
 Non-functional requirements often constrain the system
being developed and the development process being
used.
 They often relate to the emergent properties of the
system and therefore apply to the system as a whole.
Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 62
Key points

 The software requirements document is an agreed

statement of the system requirements. It should be
organized so that both system customers and software
developers can use it.
 The requirements engineering process is an iterative
process including requirements elicitation, specification
and validation.
 Requirements elicitation and analysis is an iterative
process that can be represented as a spiral of activities –
requirements discovery, requirements classification and
organization, requirements negotiation and requirements
documentation.
Chapter 4 Requirements engineering 63