Chapter 5:

Signal Encoding and Digital Data Techniques

Learning Outcome
On completion of this subject, students
will be able to:

Analyse digital signal encoding

techniques in data communication
applications.
Lecture Outline
 Encoding techniques
 Digital data, digital signal
 Digital data, analogue signal
 Analogue data, digital signal
 Analogue data, analogue signal
Digital data, digital signal
Line coding
Encoding Techniques
 Digital data, digital signal
 Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
 Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZ-I)
 Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (Bipolar–
AMI)
 Pseudoternary
 Manchester
 Differential Manchester
Types of Line Coding
Encoding Techniques
Nonreturn to Zero-Level
(NRZ-L)
 Two different voltages for 0 and 1
bits
 Voltage constant during bit interval
 no transition I.e. no return to zero
voltage
 Absence of voltage for zero, constant
positive voltage for one, moreN often,
RZ-
negative voltage for one valueZer L:and
o (0
positive for the other O ne ) up
(1) per
low ,
er
Nonreturn to Zero Inverted
(NRZ-I)
 Nonreturn to zero inverted on ones
 Constant voltage pulse for duration
of bit
 Data encoded as presence or absence
of signal transition at beginning of
bit time
 Transition (low to high or high to NR Z
See low)
-I:
denotes a binary 1, no transitionno z ero (
s 0)
cha tage
denotes binary 0 Se
n ge
,
eo
cha ne (1
n )
sta ge
g e.
Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion
(Bipolar-AMI)
 Use more than two levels
 zero represented by no line signal
 one represented by positive or negative
pulse
 one pulses alternate in polarity
 No loss of sync if a long string of Bonesip o
Zer lar–AM
(zeros still a problem) o
line (0) m I:
, On idd
 No net dc component a l tern e (1) le
& lo ate
wer uppe
 Lower bandwidth leve r
ls .
 Easy error detection
Pseudoternary
 One represented by absence of line
signal
 Zero represented by alternating
positive and negative
 No advantage or disadvantagePse
udoover
One tern
bipolar-AMI Zer 1) m ary:
o
(
i
upp (0) a ddle li
er & ltern ne,
low at
er l e
eve
ls.
Manchester
 Biphase
 Transition in middle of each bit period
 Transition serves as clock and data
 Low to high represents one
 High to low represents zero
Differential Manchester
 Biphase
 Midbit transition is clocking only
 Transition at start of a bit period represents
zero
 No transition at start of a bit period
represents one
 Note: this is a differential encoding scheme
Encoding Scheme
Encoding Scheme – Summary
Encoding Scheme
Characteristics
NRZ
•Advantage:
Make efficient use of bandwidth
Simple
•Disadvantage:
Long string of data leads to loss
Low frequency response – unattractive for signal transmission
•Application  digital magnetic recording
Encoding Scheme
Characteristics
Bipolar AMI and Pseudoternary
•Advantages:
Overcome the NRZ limitations
More than 2 signal levels
No loss of synchronization for long string of 1s (ones) since it
alternate in polarity.
Encoding Scheme
Characteristics
Manchester and Differential Manchester
Advantages:
Biphase – maximum modulation rate is twice than NRZ which
requires more bandwidth than NRZ.
Biphase – there is a predictable transition during each bit
time.
Good for data transmission.
Manchester code has been specified for the IEEE 802.3
(Ethernet) standard for baseband coaxial cable and twisted-pair
bus LANs. Differential Manchester has been specified for the
IEEE 802.5 token ring LAN, using shielded twisted pair.
Digital data, analogue signal
Encoding Techniques
 Digital data, analogue signal
 Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
 Frequency shift keying (FSK)
 Phase shift keying (PSK)
Modulation Techniques

ASK

FSK

PSK
Modulation Techniques
• If the information signal is digital and the amplitude of the
carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, a
digitally modulated signal called Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
is produced.
• If the information signal is digital and the frequency is varied
proportional to the information signal, Frequency Shift
Keying (FSK) is produced.
• If the information signal is digital and the phase of the carrier
is varied proportional to the information signal, Phase Shift
Keying (PSK) is produced.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Values represented by different amplitudes
of carrier
 Used for digital data transmission over
optical fiber, where one signal element is
represented by a light pulse while the other
signal element is represented by the
absence of light.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Values represented by different frequencies
(near carrier)
 Less susceptible to error than ASK
 Used for high-frequency (3 to 30MHz) radio
transmission.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Phase of carrier signal is shifted to
represent data.
Encoding and Modulation
Techniques
• The basis for analogue signalling is a continuous constant-
frequency signal known as the carrier signal.
• Data can be transmitted using a carrier signal by modulation.
• Modulation is the process of encoding source data onto a
carrier signal with frequency, fc.
Analogue data, digital signal
Analogue data, digital signal
• Analogue data to digital data conversion is done by CODEC
(coder-decoder).
• For example voice. Voice is an analogue data. Then, it can be
digitized which means it become digital data.
• The principles for analogue data, digital signal are:
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Delta Modulation (DM)
Analogue data, digital signal
Analogue data, digital signal
 Analog to Digital Conversion

Analog  The Analog-to-digital Converter

Input (ADC) performs three functions:
Signal  Sampling
 Makes the signal discrete in time.
Sample  If the analog input has a bandwidth
of W Hz, then the minimum
sample frequency such that the
signal can be reconstructed
ADC Quantize
without distortion.
111
 Quantization
110
101  Makes the signal discrete in
100
011 amplitude.
010
001
 Round off to one of q discrete
Encode 000
levels.
 Encode
 Maps the quantized values to
digital words that are  bits long.
Digital Output  If the (Nyquist) Sampling Theorem is
Signal satisfied, then only quantization
111 111 001 010 011 111 011 introduces distortion to the system.
 Quantization
 The output of a sampler is still continuous in amplitude.
 Each sample can take on any value e.g. 3.752, 0.001, etc.
 The number of possible values is infinite.

 To transmit as a digital signal we must restrict the number of

possible values.

 Quantization is the process of “rounding off” a sample

according to some rule.
 E.g. suppose we must round to the nearest tenth, then:
 3.752 --> 3.8 0.001 --> 0
Illustration of the Quantization Error
PCM TV transmission:

(a) 5-bit resolution;

(a) 8-bit resolution.

 Uniform Quantization

Dynamic Range:
(-8, 8)  Most ADC’s use uniform
quantizers.
Output sample 7
XQ  The quantization levels of a
uniform quantizer are equally
5

3 spaced apart.
1  Uniform quantizers are optimal
-8 -6 -4 -2 -1 2 4 6 8
when the input distribution is
Input sample X uniform. When all values
-3
within the Dynamic Range of
-5 the quantizer are equally
-7
likely.
Quantization Characteristic

Example: Uniform  =3 bit quantizer

q=8 and XQ = {1,3,5,7}
Quantization Example

Analogue signal

Sampling TIMING

Quantization levels.
Quantized to 5-levels

Quantization levels
Quantized 10-levels
 PCM encoding example

Levels are
encoded using
this table
Table: Quantization levels with belonging code words

M=8

Chart 2. Process of restoring a signal.

Chart 1. Quantization and digitalization of a signal. PCM encoded signal in binary form:
101 111 110 001 010 100 111 100 011 010 101
Signal is quantized in 11 time points & 8 quantization segments.
Total of 33 bits were used to encode a signal
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• PCM is based on sampling theorem.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

• PCM starts with continuous-time, continuous-amplitude

(analogue) input signal.
• Digital signal consists of blocks of n bits where each n-bit
number is the amplitude of a PCM pulse.
• At the receiver, the process is reversed to reproduce the
analogue signal.
• Now the original signal is now approximated and cannot be
removed. This effect is known as quantizing error or
quantizing noise.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• The SNR for quantizing error or noise is given by:
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• The PCM scheme is refined using a technique known
as nonlinear encoding, which means the
quantization levels are not equally spaced.
• The problem with equal spacing is that the mean
absolute error for each sample is the same,
regardless of signal level.
• Consequently, lower amplitude values are relatively
more distorted. By using a greater number of
quantizing steps for signals of low amplitude, and a
smaller number of quantizing steps for signals of
large amplitude, a marked reduction in overall signal
distortion is achieved.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• PCM transmit all the bits that are used to code
• The signaling rate and the transmission channel bandwidth
are very large
• To overcome this problem , we use Delta Modulation
• Delta Modulation ; only one bit per sample is transmitted
Delta Modulation (DM)

• DM is an alternative to PCM.
• An analogue input is approximated by a staircase
function that moves up or down by one quantization
level,  at each sampling interval, Ts.
• The important characteristic of this staircase
function is that its behavior is binary: At each
sampling time, the function moves up or down a
constant amount, .
Delta Modulation (DM)
• Thus, the output of the delta modulation process can
be represented as a single binary digit for each
sample. In essence, a bit stream is produced by
approximating the derivative of an analogue signal
rather than its amplitude: A 1 is generated if the
staircase function is to go up during the next
interval; a 0 is generated otherwise.
• The transition (up or down) that occurs at each
sampling interval is chosen so that the staircase
function tracks the original analogue waveform as
closely as possible.
Delta Modulation (DM)
Analogue data, analogue
signal
Analogue data, analogue
signal
• The principal techniques for modulation using
analogue data:
amplitude modulation (AM)
angle modulation:
frequency modulation (FM)
phase modulation (PM)
Amplitude modulation (AM)
• Mathematically: Input carrier
data

s (t ) 1  na x(t ) cos 2f c t

modulation index
(ratio of
amplitude of
input signal to
carrier signal
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Angle modulation
• Mathematically:
s (t )  Ac cos2f c t   (t )