Seventh Edition

CHAPTER MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
1 Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf Introduction –
David F. Mazurek
Concept of Stress
Lecture Notes:
Brock E. Barry
U.S. Military Academy

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Contents

Concept of Stress Bearing Stress in Connections

Review of Statics Stress Analysis & Design Example
Structure Free-Body Diagram Rod & Boom Normal Stresses
Component Free-Body Diagram Pin Shearing Stresses
Method of Joints Pin Bearing Stresses
Stress Analysis Stress in Two Force Members
Design Stress on an Oblique Plane
Axial Loading: Normal Stress Maximum Stresses
Centric & Eccentric Loading Stress Under General Loadings
Shearing Stress State of Stress
Shearing Stress Examples Factor of Safety

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Concept of Stress

• The main objective of the study of the mechanics

of materials is to provide the future engineer with
the means of analyzing and designing various
machines and load bearing structures.

• Both the analysis and design of a given structure

involve the determination of stresses and
deformations. This chapter is devoted to the
concept of stress.

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Review of Statics

• The structure is designed to

support a 30 kN load
• The structure consists of a
boom AB and rod BC joined by
pins (zero moment connections)
at the junctions and supports
• Perform a static analysis to
determine the reaction forces at
the supports and the internal
Fig. 1.1 Boom used to support a 30-kN load.
force in each structural member

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Structure Free-Body Diagram

• Structure is detached from supports and
the loads and reaction forces are
indicated to produce a free-body diagram
• Conditions for static equilibrium:

M C 0  Ax 0.6 m  30 kN 0.8 m 

Ax 40 kN
F x 0 Ax  C x
C x  Ax  40 kN
F y 0  Ay  C y  30 kN 0
Ay  C y 30 kN

Fig. 1.2 Free-body diagram of boom showing

Applied load and reaction forces.
• Ay and Cy cannot be determined from
these equations

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Component Free-Body Diagram

• In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium
• Consider a free-body diagram of the boom AB:
 M B 0  Ay 0.8 m 
Ay 0
substitute into the structure equilibrium
equation
C y 30 kN
Fig. 1.3 Free-body diagram of member AB freed from
structure. • Results:
A 40 kN  C x 40 kN  C y 30 kN 

Reaction forces are directed along the

boom and rod

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Method of Joints
• Joints must satisfy the conditions for static
equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force
 triangle:
 FB 0
FAB FBC 30 kN
 
4 5 3
FAB 40 kN FBC 50 kN
Fig. 1.4 Free-body diagram of boom’s joint B and
associated force triangle.

• The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e.,

the members are subjected to only two forces
which are applied at the ends of the members

• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel to

an axis between the force application points,
equal in magnitude, and in opposite directions
Fig. 1.5 Free-body diagrams of two-force
members AB and BC.

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Stress Analysis
Can the structure safely support the 30 kN load
if rod BC has a diameter of 20 mm?
• From a statics analysis
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)
• At any section through member BC, the
internal force is 50 kN with a force intensity
dBC = 20 mm or stress of
Fig. 1.1 Boom used to support a 30-kN load.
P 50 103 N
 BC   159 MPa
A 314 10-6 m 2

• From the material properties for steel, the

allowable stress is
 all 165 MPa
• Conclusion: the strength of member BC is
Fig. 1.7 Axial force represents the adequate
resultant of distributed elementary forces.

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Design
• Design of new structures requires selection of
appropriate materials and component dimensions
to meet performance requirements
• For reasons based on cost, weight, availability,
etc., the choice is made to construct the rod from
aluminum all= 100 MPa) What is an
appropriate choice for the rod diameter?
P P 50 103 N 6 2
 all  A  500 10 m
A  all 100 106 Pa

d2
A 
4

Fig. 1.1 Boom used to support a 30-kN load.

d
4A


4 500 10  6 m 2  2.52 10 2 m 25.2 mm
 

• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter is

adequate
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Axial Loading: Normal Stress

• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• The force intensity on that section is defined as

the normal stress.
Fig. 1.9 Small area A, at an arbitrary cross F P
section point carries/axial F in this member.   lim  ave 
A 0 A A

• The normal stress at a particular point may not be

equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy
P  ave A dF   dA
A

• The actual distribution of stresses is statically

indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
Fig. 1.10 Stress distributions at different alone.
sections along axially loaded member.

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Centric & Eccentric Loading

• A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.

• A uniform distribution of stress is only

possible if the line of action of the
Fig. 1.12 Centric loading having resultant forces
passing through the centroid of the section. concentrated loads P and P’ passes through
the centroid of the section considered. This is
referred to as centric loading.

• If a two-force member is eccentrically

loaded, then the resultant of the stress
distribution in a section must yield an axial
force and a moment.

• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded

Fig. 1.13 An example of simple eccentric loading.
members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
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Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the
member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane
of section C and are called shearing forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
Fig. 1.14 Opposing transverse loads creating
shear on member AB.
distribution is defined as the shear of the section
and is equal to the load P.
• The corresponding average shear stress is,
P
 ave 
A
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the
member surfaces to maximum values that may be
much larger than the average value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to
Fig. 1.15 This shows the resulting internal shear
force on a section between transverse forces. be uniform.
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Shearing Stress Examples

Single Shear Double Shear

Fig. 1.16 Bolt subject to single shear. Fig. 1.18 Bolt subject to double shear.

Fig. 1.17 (a) Diagram of bolt in single shear; Fig. 1.19 (a) Diagram of bolt in double shear;
(b) section E-E’ of the bolt (b) section K-K’ and L-L’ of the bolt.

P F P F
 ave    ave  
A A A 2A

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Bearing Stress in Connections

• Bolts, rivets, and pins create

stresses on the points of
contact or bearing surfaces of
the members they connect.

• The resultant of the force

distribution on the surface is
Fig. 1.20 Equal and opposite forces between
plate and bolt, exerted over bearing surfaces. equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin.

• Corresponding average force

intensity is called the bearing
stress,
P P
b  
A td

Fig. 1.21 Dimensions for calculating bearing stress area.

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Stress Analysis & Design Example

• Would like to determine the

stresses in the members and
connections of the structure
shown.

• From a statics analysis:

FAB = 40 kN
(compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)
• Must consider maximum
normal stresses in AB and
BC, and the shearing stress
and bearing stress at each
pinned connection

Fig. 1.22 Components of boom used to support 30 kN load.

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Rod & Boom Normal Stresses

• The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.

• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the

circular cross-section (A = 314x10-6m2) is
BC = +159 MPa.

• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-sectional

area occurs at the pin centerline,
A 20 mm 40 mm  25 mm  300 10 6 m 2

P 50 103 N
 BC ,end   167 MPa
A 300 10 6 m 2

• The boom is in compression with an axial force of

Fig. 1.22 (partial)
40 kN and average normal stress of –26.7 MPa.

• The sections of minimum area at A and B are not under

stress, since the boom is in compression, and therefore
pushes on the pins.

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Pin Shearing Stresses

• The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B,
and C,
2
2  25 mm  6 2
A  r    49110 m
 2 

• The force on the pin at C is equal to the

Fig. 1.23 Diagrams of the single shear pin at C.
force exerted by the rod BC,
P 50 103 N
 C , ave    6 2
102 MPa
A 49110 m

• The pin at A is in double shear with a

total force equal to the force exerted by
the boom AB,
P 20 kN
 A, ave   6 2
40.7 MPa
A 49110 m
Fig. 1.24 Free-body diagrams of the double shear pin at A.

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Pin Shearing Stresses

• Divide the pin at B into sections to determine
the section with the largest shear force,
PE 15 kN
PG 25 kN (largest)

• Evaluate the corresponding average

shearing stress,
PG 25 kN
 B, ave   50.9 MPa
A 49110 6 m 2

Fig. 1.25 Free-body diagrams for various sections at pin B.

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Pin Bearing Stresses

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom AB,

we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b   53.3 MPa
td 30 mm 25 mm 

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the bracket,

we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b   32.0 MPa
td 50 mm 25 mm 

Fig. 1.22 (partial)

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Stress in Two Force Members

• Axial forces on a two force

member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• Transverse forces on bolts and

pins result in only shear stresses
Fig. 1.26 Axial forces on a two-force member. (a) Section on the plane perpendicular to bolt
plane perpendicular to member away from load application.
(b) Equivalent force diagram models of resultant force acting or pin axis.
at centroid and uniform normal stress.

• Axial or transverse forces may

produce both normal and shear stresses
with respect to a plane other than one
cut perpendicular to the member axis.
Fig. 1.27 (a) Diagram of a bolt from a single shear joint with
a section plane normal to the bolt. (b) Equivalent force
diagram model of the resultant force acting at the section
centroid and the uniform average shear stress.

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Stress on an Oblique Plane

• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle with the normal plane.

• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.

• Resolve P into components normal and

tangential to the oblique section,
F  P cos V  P sin 

• The average normal and shear stresses on

the oblique plane are
F P cos P
   cos 2 
Fig. 1.28 Oblique section through a two-force member.
Section plane made at an angle  to the member normal plane, (b)
(a)
A A0 A0
Free-body diagram of left section with internal resultant force P. (c)
cos
Free-body diagram of resultant force resolved into components F and V P sin  P
V along the section plane’s normal and tangential directions,     sin  cos
respectively. (d) Free-body diagram with equivalent as normal stress, A A0 A0
, and shearing stress, . cos
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Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
 cos 2    sin  cos
A0 A0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
P
m    0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
m  sin 45 cos 45   
A0 2 A0

Fig. 1.29 Selected stress results for axial loading.

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Factor of Safety

Structural members or machines Factor of safety considerations:

must be designed such that the • uncertainty in material properties
working stresses are less than the • uncertainty of loadings
ultimate strength of the material. • uncertainty of analyses
• number of loading cycles
FS Factor of safety
• types of failure
 ultimate stress
FS  u  • maintenance requirements and
 all allowable stress
deterioration effects
• importance of member to integrity of
whole structure
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function

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