Bacterial Genetics
• Genetics - Study of what genes are, how they
carry information, how information is expressed,
gene inheritance and how genes are replicated
and regulated
• Gene - Segment of DNA that encodes for a
functional product, usually a protein
• The protein so formed determines the structural
and functional properties of the cell
• Genome - All of the genetic material in a cell
Bacterial Genetics
• Bacteria have a single chromosome and
therefore have one copy of each gene that is
they are haploid.
• Human cells (eukaryotes) are diploid, which is
they have a pair of each chromosome and
therefore have two copies of each gene.
• Concept of Dominant / Recessive genes is
applicable in Eukaryotes cells
• In addition to this bacterial DNA is circular,
whereas human nuclear DNA is linear.
• Histones only seen in Eukaryotes
E. coli
Bacterial Genetics
Gene expression
• The genetic information for protein synthesis in DNA resides in the
sequences of the bases (A,T,G,C) in a specific strand
• Groups of 3 sequential bases along a DNA strand form triplets and each
triplet constitutes a code (=codon) for a specific amino acid or stop
signals
• Of the 64 codons – 3 stop signals, and 61 code for 21 amino acids
making the coding highly redundant
Process of forming proteins – a multi-step process
1. DNA transcribed by the action of DNA polymerase into complementary
strand of messenger RNA (mRNA)
2. The mRNA is then used as a template for protein synthesis (after
formation of amino acids in accordance to the codons) on ribosomes by
the process of translation
Bacterial Genetics
• The DNA of any gene on the chromosome is subjected
to accidental change.
• A change in the characteristics of a cell caused by a
change in the DNA molecule that is transmissible to the
offspring is called a mutation.
• Spontaneous mutations: Occur in the absence of a
mutagen
• Induced mutation :The mutation rate can be increased
by exposing the cells to physical or chemical agents that
affect the DNA molecule. The agents are called
mutagens.
• Mutations may be neutral, beneficial, or harmful
Bacterial Genetics
Mutation results from 3 types of molecular changes which
may be either spontaneous or induced type
1) Base mutation – When one base is inserted in place of
another
• Takes place at the time of DNA replication
• Created as a result of DNA polymerase error or effect
of mutagen
a) Missense mutation – base substitution resulting in the
incorporation of a different amino acid
b) Nonsense mutation – base substitution generates
termination codon that stops protein synthesis
prematurely (destroys protein function)
Bacterial Genetics - Mutation
Bacterial Genetics - Mutation
2. Frameshift mutation
• Occurs when one or more base pair is added or deleted resulting in
shifting of the reading frame of the codons on the ribosomes
• Incorporation of the wrong amino acids resulting in the production
of an inactive protein
3. Integration of Transposons or insertion sequence
• Movable genes can be incorporated into the DNA of a cell and can
change expression of the gene or other adjacent cells
4. Due to mutagens –
• Common ones – UV, X-rays, Gamma rays and chemicals like
acridine orange, nitrous acid and bromouracil – sometimes
Bacterial Genetics – Mutation - UV
Bacterial Genetics
Gene Transfer Mechanisms In Bacteria
1. Transfer of DNA within Bacterial Cells
The transfer of DNA within bacterial cells occurs by two
processes:
• Transposons –
• Programmed rearrangement –
2. Transfer of DNA between Bacterial Cells
The transfer of genetic information from one cell to
another cell.
Transfer of DNA within Bacterial
Cells
• Transposable genetic elements (transposons)
are segments of DNA that have the capacity to
move from one location to another
Medically, transposons are important because
they commonly carry antibiotic resistance genes.
• Programmed rearrangements are the
movement of genes from inactive sites (storage)
into active sites where they are expressed as
new proteins.
Medically this is important because it help
bacteria acquire a new protein (antigen) on their
surface and evade the immune system.
Bacterial Genetics
Transposons
• Segments of DNA that
can move from one
region of DNA to
another
• Complex transposons
carry other genes
Transfer of DNA between
Bacterial Cells
The transfer of genetic information from one cell to
another can occur by three methods:
•Transformation
•Transduction
• Conjugation
Bacterial Genetics
A. Transformation
• Transformation is the transfer of DNA itself from one
cell to another cell.
• Certain bacteria e.g. Bacillus, Haemophilus, Neisseria,
Pneumococcus can take up DNA from the environment
and the DNA that is taken up can be incorporated into
the recipient chromosome.
• In this process the DNA is either released from dying
cells or purified in the laboratory which then enters a
recipient bacterium.
• Transformation is sensitive to nucleases (Enzymes
that degrade DNA) in the environment.
Bacterial Genetics
Transformation
Bacterial Genetics
B. Transduction
• Transduction is the transfer of genetic
information from a donor to a recipient by way of
a bacteriophage.
• Bacteriophage (phage): A virus that infects
bacteria
• Within the recipient cell the phage can integrate
into cell DNA and the cell can acquire a new
trait, a process called lysogenic conversion.
Transduction
Recombinant
1 2
3 4 5
Occasionally during phage assembly,
pieces of bacterial DNA are packaged A phage carrying bacterial Recombinant can occur,
in a phage capsid. Then the donor cell DNA infects a new host cell, producing a recombinant
lyses and releases phage particles the recipient cell. cell with a genotype
containing bacterial DNA. different from both the
donor and recipient cells.
Bacterial Genetics
C. Conjugation
• Conjugation is transfer of DNA from a donor to a
recipient by direct physical contact between the
cells.
• In bacteria there are two mating types a donor
(male) and a recipient (female) and the direction
of transfer of genetic material is one way.
• DNA is transferred from a donor to a recipient.
Bacterial Genetics
• For conjugation to occur the donor bacterium
must have fertility plasmid “F plasmid”
• The donor sex pilus attaches to the recipient cell
to form a pilus bridge.
• Genetic material from a plasmid or from the
chromosomes is then transferred across the
pilus bridge from the donor to the recipient.
• Plasmids carrying antibiotic resistant genes are
commonly transferred by conjugation
Bacterial Genetics
Conjugation
Recombination
Process of Integration of transferred DNA (in one of the three ways)
into the host cell chromosome
