Understanding Cross-
Cultural Management
Marie-Joëlle Browaeys & Roger Price
Third Edition
Part 1: Culture and Management
Chapter 5
Cultural dimensions and dilemmas
Concept 5.1: Value orientations and dimensions
Concept5.2: Reconciling cultural dilemmas
Preface: motivation – needs and
values
Gullestrup's Perspective (2006)
Identifying a potential ethical dilemma for "cultural actors"
Cultural actors: Individuals seeking intercultural understanding
Two Levels of Dilemmas
Abstract Level Dilemma: Universally Valid Culture
Questioning the existence of an ideal, universally valid culture
Can such a culture be universally applicable across local cultures?
Emotional and Personal Level Dilemma: Behavior and Values
Modification
Dilemma arises when cultural actors aim to change behavior or
values in a given culture
Struggle between respecting local values and driving change
Dilemma of motivation
Definition:
“Challenge faced by managers dealing with multicultural teams.”
Managers encounter the dilemma of motivation
Understanding the Challenge
Managers recognize cultural differences in work approaches
Essential to acknowledge diverse motivational systems
Complexity of Motivational Systems
Variety: Different cultures possess distinct motivational systems
Identifying relevant systems enhances individual and group performance
Navigating the Dilemma
Scenario: Manager seeks strategies to motivate culturally diverse team
Success hinges on aligning individual needs with appropriate incentives
Interdisciplinary Knowledge
Requirement: Managers need interdisciplinary expertise
Blend of psychology and motivational theories crucial
Todes et al.'s Insight (1977)
"The success or failure of motivation rests not on the technique itself but
on management’s ability to match the needs of people with appropriate
incentives."
Motivation Theories: Human vs.
Cultural Perspectives
Human Needs Perspective
Sociological View
Actions influenced by customs and societal values
Behavior aligns with societal norms
Biological View
Actions driven by physiological needs
Basic survival and comfort needs guide behavior
Psychoanalytic View
Unconscious processes shape human actions
Behavior tied to hidden psychological motives
Behaviourist View
Behavior responds to motivating stimuli
Motivated by positive or negative reinforcement
Additional Perspectives (Organizational Level)
Psychological and spiritual needs
Complex and culture-linked, tied to organizational context
Cultural Values Perspective
Adler with Gundersen (2008) critique theories' universal applicability
Examples:
Maslow's hierarchy reflects American values
Herzberg's theory contrasts intrinsic and extrinsic factors
Vroom's Expectancy Theory
Universality due to not specifying cultural rewards
Managers adapt rewards based on cultural context
Recent Cultural Component Inclusion
Cultural Intelligence Theory (Earley and Ang, 2003)
Focus on adapting to diverse cultural contexts
Cultural intelligence's motivational aspects include values like
confidence, persistence, and affinity with new cultures
Value orientations and
dimensions
Cultural theory concepts inspire research on culture and management's
influence on individuals.
Parsons' Perspective
Parsons, an American sociologist, aimed to unify social sciences into a
science of human action.
Work: "The Structure of Social Action" (1937)
Individuals' actions fully integrated into the social system.
Conformity to Norms
Individuals passively adhere to conduct rules of their society.
Societal norms become institutionalized and internalized through
socialization.
Role of Internalized Norms
Internalized norms guide actions and align individuals with social order.
Effect: Reduces uncertainty during interactions.
Predictability Enhancement
Social mechanism fosters predictability in interactions.
Interactions become more certain in terms of motives and reactions.
The value-orientation approach
The value-orientation concept:
Kluckholn & Strodtbeck define value orientations as:
“being complex principles”
Three assumptions:
Universal nature of value orientations
Many ways of solving problems
Preferences in choosing solutions
Five Universal Human Problems:
Human Nature Orientation: View on human nature (Goodness vs.
Badness).
Man-Nature Orientation: Relationship with nature (Harmony vs.
Mastery).
Time Orientation: Focus on time (Past, Present, Future).
Activity Orientation: Approach to action (Being, Becoming, Doing).
Relational Orientation: Interpersonal relations (Lineal, Collateral,
Individualistic).
Trompenaars’ seven dimensions
Fons Trompenaars' Perspective
Each culture offers distinct solutions for universal problems.
Surveys presented respondents with dilemmas and diverse solutions.
Cultural Dimensions
Trompenaars examines culture through seven dimensions.
Dimensions categorized into: People, Time, and Environment.
Emphasis on how human beings interact, echoing Parsons' relational
orientations.
Key Dimensions (Five of Seven)
1. Universalism vs. Particularism: Attitudes towards rules and
relationships.
2. Individualism vs. Communitarianism: Individual vs. group focus.
3. Specific vs. Diffuse: Separation of personal and work relationships.
4. Neutral vs. Affective: Expression of emotions.
5. Achievement vs. Ascription: Attitudes towards status and roles.
Trompenaars added two dimensions of particular interest to management
and business. The dimensions he delineated are to do with time and the
environment.
Time and Environment
6. Sequential vs. Synchronic Time (Monochronic/Polychronic)
Sequential: Tangible, do one activity at a time
Synchronic: Flexible, intangible, approximate appointments
7. Inner vs. Outer Directed
Internal Control: Personal conviction, potential conflicts
External Control: Harmony-seeking, flexible, compromising
A framework for the new
millennium manager
Trompenaars and Woolliams (2000)
Developed framework for "millennium manager."
Combined seven dimensions with dilemmas from Hampden-Turner.
Factor analysis reduced behaviors to seven core competencies based on
dimension values.
Trompenaars’ dimensions versus
Hofstede’s dimensions
The nature of Trompenaars’ dimensions and Hofstede dimensions is very
different in approach:
Trompenaars:
Cultures are more like circles with ‘preferred arcs joined together
Seen as a ‘model-to-learn-with’
Hofstede:
Linear forms where cultures are positioned high or low or in the middle.
Seeking ‘the perfect model’
Innovation and culture of the
organisation
Innovation by Genelot (2011)
Innovation extends beyond products or services.
Encompasses management methods and production.
Three levels of innovation:
(1) Science and culture
(2) Organization and production
(3) Consumption.
Essential Conditions for Successful Innovation
Generate New Ideas
Transform Ideas into Effective Projects
Reconciling cultural dilemmas
The dilemmas in each of the seven dimensions require some kind of
resolution.
Trompenaars’ methodology aims to reconcile what appear to be
opposing values within the dimensions.
Cultures are seen as ‘dancing’ from one preferred end of a dimension to
another.
How does reconciliation work?
The process of reconciliation leads to a dynamic equilibrium between
seemingly opposed values, which make up a dilemma.
There are different alternatives:
1. Processing: a dilemma is made into two processes.
2. Contextualizing: what is text and what is context.
3. Sequencing: every process of reconciliation is a sequence.
4. Synergizing: adding the word through between the two opposite
alternative orientations.
Stages of the reconciliation
process
Marion Estienne (1997) sees five stages to the reconciliation process as
developed by Trompenaars.
“This process aids in resolving cross-cultural conflicts”.
1. Reaffirm Commitment to Relationship
"Win-win" approach, focusing on collaboration benefits.
2. Recognize Differences
Develop global mindset.
Legitimize diversity.
Acquire cross-cultural knowledge.
Show "acceptance" when needed.
3. Search for Similarities
Emphasize dialogue.
Identify common ground.
4. Synthesize Solutions
Utilize opposing cultural elements creatively.
Demonstrate willingness to learn.
Maintain dialogue.
5. Review Learning Process
Embrace experience-based learning.
Articulate and apply knowledge gained.
Reconciliation Approach's Benefits
Opens opportunities beyond dilemmas.
Aids in preventing impasses.
Adaptation to interlocutors' cultures for effective collaboration.
Conclusion
The Trompenaars’ dimensions reflect the value-orientation concept
proposed by Kluckholn and Strodtbeck.
The cross-cultural manager has to face universal dilemmas, but the way
they are resolved is culturally determined.
Rather than the dimensions themselves, it is the concept of
reconciliation which distinguishes the work of Trompenaars (and
Hampden-Turner)from that of Hofstede.
