Course Title: Building Construction and

Cost Estimation
Course Code: AG312

Course Coordinator
Name: Dr Jagriti Gupta
Designation: Assistant Professor
Department: Civil Engineering
Email ID: [Link]@[Link]
Lesson no: 5 Metals, Glass, Plastics, and
Timber.
Expected Course Outcomes
By the end of the course, students will be able to:
•Understand the properties and applications of key building materials and components, including their design and
construction techniques.
•Gain knowledge of agricultural and roofed building designs, sustainable practices, and conservation principles.
•Analyze construction economics, including cost estimation, cost control, and evaluation of planning alternatives.
•Apply economic methods like cost-in-use analysis, benefit-to-cost ratios, and payback period calculations to assess
investments in buildings and systems.
•By integrating theoretical and practical knowledge, students will develop skills for sustainable, cost-effective
construction practices and informed decision-making in real-world building design and construction projects.
Course Objectives:
•Understand Building Materials: Learn the properties, classifications, and applications of essential construction
materials like stones, bricks, cement, concrete, glass, metals, and timber.
•Master Building Components and Techniques: Gain knowledge of the design, construction, and finishing
methods for key building components such as floors, staircases, arches, and walls.
•Explore Specialized Building Design: Study the design and construction of agricultural buildings, sloped and
flat roofs, with a focus on conservation and modern design practices.
•Analyse Construction Economics: Develop skills in cost estimation, cost control, and evaluating cost-effective
design and planning alternatives in construction projects.
•Apply Economic Evaluation Tools: Use methods like cost-in-use analysis, benefit-to-cost ratios, and payback
period calculations to assess investments in buildings and systems.
Wood
Wood is of two types – hard wood and soft wood.
Hard wood is used for building construction and soft wood is mostly
used for packaging material and boxes. Plywood is obtained from
inferior quality wood after some processing, and it is used for making
furniture. Hardwood is seasoned to reduce moisture content and is also
treated with creosote oil. Hard woods are used in the room where moist
conditions prevail and it is properly seasoned to prevent any kind of
mould growth and contamination. Soft woods are used in the dairy for
cold store doors and covered with stainless steel sheet. Soft wood is
obtained from trees of Deodar, Kali, Chir, Pine, Walnut and Spruce etc.
Soft woods are resinous and light in colour. It is general characteristics
that trees having needle like leaves give soft wood
Timber wood

Timber wood is suitable for building or engineering purposes. When in living tree, the timber is called
‘standing timber’. When trees are cut down, it is called ‘rough timber’ and when it is sawn into various
market sizes, such as beams, battens, posts, planks etc., it is called ‘convert timber’

Seasoning of wood

The growing tree contains a large amount of moisture which may be 150% of the dry weight of the
timber. The process of removal by drying the excess moisture from the wood in a controlled manner to
prevent the shrinkage which occurs, causing cracks and other defects is called seasoning. Seasoning
may be natural or artificial. Natural seasoning is best but it takes long time. Artificial seasoning may
be water seasoning, boiling or kiln seasoning.
Preservation of wood
Timber is liable to attack by dry rot and other fungi. The function of a preservative is to poison the food matter in the timber. But this
poison should not be dangerous to carpenter and must not wash out in rain. The best time to apply preservatives is the early summer. The
usual methods of preservation are tarring, charring, painting, creosoting, solignum paints and Ascu treatment.
Tarring consists of coating the timber with hot coal tar. Tarring is adopted only for work of rough character such as timber fences, ends of
doors and window frames built into walls.
Charring is adapted to the portions which are embedded in the ground. The ends of posts are charred over a wood fire to a depth of about
½” and then quenched with water. Painting consists of applying 3 or 4 coats of an oil paint. Solignum paints are effective preservatives
against attack by white ants. The process of Ascu treatment for the preservation of wood has been developed at the Forest Research
Institute at Dehradun. The powder developed for the purpose is dissolved in water. Six parts of powder are dissolved in 100 parts of water
and then applied or sprayed on timber.
Fire proofing
Wood can catch fire very easily and it is difficult to make it fireproof. However, chemicals such as 2 coats of 2% solution of Borax or
sodium arsenate are effective in retarding the action of fire.
Metals
Metals are used in the dairy for different purposes. Mild steel is used for fabrication of sheds, grills, foundations, pipelines,
and as structural steel. Cast iron is used for drainage of effluent as well as for the fabrication of various components of
machines. Stainless steel is used for fabrication of dairy equipment and milk pipelines.
Stainless steels (SS)
Stainless steels were invented to overcome the problem of corrosion which is a major concern of food and many other
industries. The alloy of steel containing iron-chromium-nickel is known as stainless steels which do not rust in sea water
and are resistant to acids and several other chemicals. Stainless steels typically contain between 9 and 30 percent chromium
and varying amounts of nickel, molybdenum, copper, sulfur, titanium, niobium, etc., may be added to obtain the desired
mechanical properties and service life. Having all these properties, SS are widely used in dairy and food industry. Stainless
steel is considered noble metal for use in dairy industry. Stainless steels are classified based on the chemical composition
and it provides information to overcome many types of corrosion. Some of the limitations of SS employed in food and dairy
industry are attack by lactic and malic acids at elevated temperature and poor thermal conductivity. However, these
limitations may be overcome by carefully selection & fabrication, optimized operating condition, care and maintenance of
the equipment.
Desirable properties of SS
• Corrosion resistance
• Resistance to oxidation and sulfidation
• Strength and ductility at ambient and service temperatures
• Suitability for intended fabrication techniques
• Suitability for intended cleaning procedures
• Stability of properties in service
• Toughness
• Resistance to abrasion, erosion, galling, and seizing
• Surface finish and/or reflectivity
• Physical property characteristics such as magnetic properties, thermal conductivity and electrical
resistivity
• Total cost, including initial cost, installed cost, and the effective life expectancy of the finished product
Steel

Steel is an intermediate stage between cast iron and wrought iron. The cast iron contains 2-4 % carbon while
wrought iron has carbon content less than 0.15%. In steel, the carbon content varies between 0.25 to 1.5 %.
There is no graphite in the steel. The steel becomes harder and tougher as its carbon content increases. Steel is
used for various applications in dairy industry.

Aluminium

Aluminium is used as frame work for doors and windows in dairy and food processing plants. The desirable
properties of aluminium which makes it suitable are light weight, softness, and appearance. Its use is limited
by the fact that it is tarnished and corroded by ordinary alkaline dairy cleaners and sterilizers.
GLASS:
Glass is an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well as hard, brittle, and impervious
to the natural elements. Glass has been made into practical and decorative objects since ancient times, and it is still
very important in applications as disparate as building construction, house wares, and telecommunications. It is
made by cooling molten ingredients such as silica sand with sufficient rapidity to prevent the formation of visible
crystals.
TYPES OF GLASS
1) Annealed Glass
Annealed glass is a basic product formed from the annealing stage of the float process. The molten glass is allowed
to cool slowly in a controlled way until it reaches room temperature, relieving any internal stresses in the glass.
Without this controlled slow cooling, glass would crack with relatively little change in temperature or slight
mechanical shock. Annealed glass is used as a base product to form more advanced glass types.
2) Heat Strengthened Glass
Heat Strengthened Glass is semi tempered or semi toughened glass. The heat strengthening process involves
heating annealed glass back up to about 650 to 700 degrees Celsius and then cooling it quickly, although not as fast
as with toughened glass. The heat strengthening process increases the mechanical and thermal strength of annealed
glass, making it twice as tough as annealed glass.
3) Tempered or Toughened Glass
This is the most common type of glass used in balustrades or similar structural applications. Annealed glass is
heated to about 700 degrees Celsius by conduction, convection and radiation. The cooling process is accelerated by
a uniform and simultaneous blast of air on both surfaces. The different cooling rates between the surface and the
inside of the glass produces different physical properties, resulting in compressive stresses in the surface balanced
by tensile stresses in the body of the glass.
4) Laminated Glass
Any one of the above types of glass can be laminated. The most commonly used finished
product is two sheets of toughened glass, laminated together with a 1.52mm thick
Polyiynil Butyral (PVB) interlayer. Laminated glass offers many advantages. Safety and
security are the best known of these, so rather than shattering on impact, laminated glass
is held together by the interlayer. This reduces the safety hazard associated with
shattered glass fragments, as well as, to some degree, the security risks associated with
easy penetration.
Applications of Glass
• Packaging (jars for food, bottles for drinks, flacon for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals)
• Tableware (drinking glasses, plate, cups, bowls)
• Housing and buildings (windows, facades, conservatory, insulation, reinforcement structures)
• Interior design and furniture (mirrors, partitions, balustrades, tables, shelves, lighting)
• Appliances and Electronics (oven doors, cook top, TV, computer screens, smartphones)
• Automotive and transport (windscreens, backlights, light weight but reinforced structural components of cars,
aircrafts, ships, etc.)
• Medical technology, biotechnology, life science engineering, optical glass
• Radiation protection from X-Rays (radiology) and gamma-rays (nuclear)
Fibre optic cables (phones, TV, computer: to carry information)
• Renewable energy (solar-energy glass, wind turbines)
PLASTIC:
Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials
that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it
possible for plastics to be moulded, extruded or pressed into solid
objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of
other properties, such as being lightweight, durable, flexible, and
inexpensive to produce, has led to its widespread use. Plastics
typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern
plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas
or petroleum; however, recent industrial methods use variants made
from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives.
Properties of Plastics
• These are light in weight and is chemically stable.
• Easily moulded into different shapes and sizes.
• Good insulation and low thermal conductivity.
• Good impact resistance and they do not rust.
• Good transparency and wear resistance.
• Poor dimensional stability and can be easily deformed.
• Low processing cost.
Different Types of Plastic Plastics are of Two Types:
1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermosetting Plastic
Thermoplastics:
The term ‘thermoplastic’ refers to plastics that do not undergo any chemical changes when subjected to high
temperatures. These plastics do not undergo any changes in their chemical structures and chemical compositions
when subjected to heat and can be changed into a soft state and remoulded multiple times. Examples: Polystyrene,
Teflon, Acrylic, Nylon, etc.

Thermosetting Plastics:
They are also known as thermosets, and are plastics that can be moulded only once and do not change shape on
applying heat. These plastics can only be moulded once and they cannot be softened on further heating. These
plastics undergo degradation and become damaged when exposed to a large amount of heat. Examples: Vulcanized
rubber, Bakelite, Polyurethane, Epoxy resin, Vinyl ester resin, etc.
Uses of Plastics:
Plastics are highly durable, lightweight and most importantly can be moulded into any form or shape. These
properties account for the largest usage of plastics. plastics are extremely versatile materials and can be used for a
wide variety of purposes. Some usage of plastics are given below:
1. The ability to be moulded makes plastic an ideal packaging material. Plastics in packaging help to keep foods
safe and fresh.
2. Being durable and lightweight, plastics have helped in the electronic field. From computers and cell phones to
television and microwave, almost all appliances around us make some use of plastic.
3. Plastics are used to make safety gear like helmets, goggles etc. Plastics are used in the construction industry due
to their low maintenance and high durability.
4. Plastic is strong and lightweight, that is why it is useful in making toys, electrical switches and other household
products.
5. Being non-reactive with air and water, plastic is used to store water in plastic bottles and other chemicals in
chemical laboratories.
6. Plastic is a poor conductor of electricity and heat. Its insulation property is used for coating the electric wire and
to make handles of cooking utensils and various household products.
1. Which metal is most commonly used in structural
frameworks due to its high strength and durability?
a) Copper
b) Aluminium
c) Iron
d) Nickel
Answer: c) Iron
2. Which property of aluminium makes it suitable for
lightweight construction and roofing?
a) High density
b) Corrosion resistance
c) Magnetic properties
d) High thermal conductivity
Answer: b) Corrosion resistance
[Link] is primarily used in construction for which purpose?
a) Decorative coatings
b) Structural beams
c) Electrical insulation
d) Flooring materials
Answer: a) Decorative coatings
[Link] of the following metals is an excellent conductor of
electricity and is often used in electrical wiring?
a) Steel
b) Copper
c) Nickel
d) Aluminium
Answer: b) Copper
[Link] is the primary use of steel in construction?
a) Insulation material
b) Reinforcement in concrete
c) Decorative panels
d) Partition walls
Answer: b) Reinforcement in concrete
6. Which type of glass is most suitable for safety applications
in windows and doors?
a) Tempered glass
b) Frosted glass
c) Float glass
d) Tinted glass
Answer: a) Tempered glass
7. What is the main feature of laminated glass?
a) Increased privacy
b) Heat resistance
c) Holds together when shattered
d) Lightweight
Answer: c) Holds together when shattered
8. Which type of glass is used to reduce glare and provide
privacy?
a) Frosted glass
b) Tempered glass
c) Tinted glass
d) Laminated glass
Answer: a) Frosted glass
9. What is a common application of glass in modern building
facades?
a) Load-bearing walls
b) Roofing material
c) Transparent cladding
d) Reinforcement in concrete
Answer: c) Transparent cladding
10. Which glass is most commonly used in partitions for its
aesthetic appeal and transparency?
a) Laminated glass
b) Frosted glass
c) Clear float glass
d) Tempered glass
Answer: c) Clear float glass
[Link] is the primary advantage of plastics in construction
materials?
a) High density
b) Lightweight and corrosion-resistant
c) High melting point
d) Electrical conductivity
Answer: b) Lightweight and corrosion-resistant
[Link] of the following is a common application of plastics
in construction?
a) Structural beams
b) Insulation materials
c) Roofing tiles
d) Flooring panels
Answer: b) Insulation materials
13. PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) is commonly used for which
construction element?
a) Concrete reinforcement
b) Window frames and pipes
c) Roof tiles
d) Glass panels
Answer: b) Window frames and pipes

[Link] type of wood is commonly used for making furniture

due to its durability?
a) Softwood
b) Hardwood
c) Plywood
d) Laminated wood
Answer: b) Hardwood
15. What is the main purpose of timber preservation
techniques?
a) Enhance aesthetic appeal
b) Increase fire resistance
c) Protect against decay and termites
d) Reduce moisture absorption
Answer: c) Protect against decay and termites
16. Softwood is generally used in construction for which
application?
a) Flooring
b) Furniture
c) Roofing and paneling
d) Wall cladding
Answer: c) Roofing and paneling
Reference Books
1. "Building Materials" by S.K. Duggal
Publisher: New Age International Publishers.
2. "Engineering Materials" by S.C. Rangwala
Publisher: Charotar Publishing House.
3. "Building Construction" by B.C. Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, and Arun Kumar Jain
Publisher: Laxmi Publications.
4. "Construction Materials and Management" by Ghosh and Chakraborty
Publisher: PHI Learning.
5. "Civil Engineering Materials" by TTTI Chandigarh
Publisher: Tata McGraw Hill.
6. "Textbook of Building Materials" by P.C. Verghese
Publisher: PHI Learning.
Research Papers: -
• Chandra, V., J.S. Kim, T.J. Noker and G.J. Nagle, 2012. World’s first thermoplastic bridges. Proceedings of the
International Conference on Sustainable Design and Construction, Mar. 23-25, Kansas City, Missouri.
• Kazemi Najafi, S., 2013. Use of recycled plastics in wood plastic composites-A review. Waste Manage., 33: 1898-
1905. DOI: 10.1016/[Link].2013.05.017
• Krishnaswamy, P. and R. Lampo, 2001. Recycled-plastic lumber standards: From waste plastics to markets for plastic
lumber bridges world standards day 2001 paper competition first place award winner
• Lampo, R., 1995. Recycled plastics as an engineered material. Proceedings of the 13th Structure Congress
Restructuring America and Beyond, (RAB’ 95), ASCE, Reston, Va., pp: 815-818.
• Lopez, G., M. Artetxe, M. Amutio, J. Bilbao and M. Olazar, 2017. Thermochemical routes for the valorization of
waste polyolefinic plastics to produce fuels and chemicals. A review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev., 73: 346-
368. DOI: 10.1016/[Link].2017.01.142
• Lupo, E., M. Moroni, F. La Marca, S. Fulco and V. Pinzi, 2016. Investigation on an innovative technology for wet
separation of plastic wastes. Waste Manage., 51: 3-12. DOI: 10.1016/[Link].2016.02.030
• Panda, A.K., R.K. Singh and D.K. Mishra, 2010. Thermolysis of waste plastics to liquid fuel. A suitable method for
plastic waste management and manufacture of value added products-a world prospective. Renewable Sustainable
Energy Rev., 14: 233-248. DOI: 10.1016/[Link].2009.07.005