Research Methodology
What is research?
Research can be defined as the
search for knowledge or as any
systematic investigation to
establish facts.
Characteristics of Research
systematic
logical
empirical
reductive
replicable
Types of Research
Pure and Applied Research
Exploratory or Formulative Research
Descriptive Research
Diagnostic Study
Evaluation Studies
Action Research
Experimental Research
Analytical study or statistical Method
Historical Research
Surveys
Case Study
Pure and Applied Research
Pure
it is the study of search of
knowledge.
Applied
It is the study of finding solution
to a problem.
Purpose of Pure and Applied Research
Pure
It can contribute new facts
It can put theory to the rest
It may aid in conceptual clarification
It may integrate previously existing
theories.
Applied
It offers solutions to many practical
problems.
To find the critical factors in a
practical problem.
Exploratory or Formulative Research
Exploratory
Exploratory research is preliminary
study of an unfamiliar problem about
which the researcher has little or no
knowledge.
Purpose
To Generate new ideas
To increase the researcher’s
familiarity with the problem
To Make a precise formulation of the
problem
To gather information for clarifying
concepts
To determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive study is a fact- finding
investigation with adequate interpretation.
It is the simplest type of research.
It is designed to gather descriptive
information and provides information for
formulating more sophisticated studies
Data are collected using observation,
interview and mail questionnaire.
Purpose
It can focus directly on a theoretical point.
It can highlight important methodological
aspects of data collection and
interpretation.
It obtained in a research may be useful for
prediction about areas of social life outside
in the boundaries of research.
Descriptive studies are valuable in
providing facts needed for planning social
action programmes.
Diagnostic Study
It is directed towards discovering
what is happening, why is it
happening and what can be done
about.
It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem and the possible solutions for
it.
Diagnostic research is a type of research that is
used to identify the causes of a problem. It is
often used in business, healthcare, and education
to identify the root cause of a problem so that it
can be solved. It provides an in-depth
understanding of issues to help find appropriate
solutions.
Purpose
This study may also be concerned
with discovering and testing whether
certain variables are associated.
To determine the frequency with
which something occurs or with which
it is associated with something else.
Evaluation Studies
It is one type of applied research.
It is made for assessing the effectiveness of
social or economic programmes implemented
or for assessing the impact of developmental
projects area.
The determination of the results attained by
some activity designed to accomplish some
valued goal or objectives.
Purpose
It directed to assess or appraise the quality
and quantity of an activity and its
performance.
To specify its attributes and conditions
required for its success.
Action Research
Researcher attempts to study action. E.g.
Eradication of Malariya, Maritime Navigation
Action research is a reflective process of
progressive problem solving led by
individuals working with others in teams or
as part of a "community of practice" to
improve the way they address issues and
solve problems
Purpose
A baseline survey of the pre-action situation
A feasibility study of the proposed action
programme
Planning and launching the programme
Concurrent evaluation of the programme
Making modifications and changes in the
programme.
Experimental Research
Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as
sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and
medicine etc.
It is a systematic and scientific approach to research in
which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and
controls and measures any change in other variables.
Types of Experimental Research
• Controlled experimental research - Research where all
outside factors are kept constant. ...
• Manipulated experimental research - Research where
you can change the independent variable to measure the
effect on the dependent variable.
Purpose
Experiments are conducted to be able to predict
phenomenons.
To maintain control over all factors
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to
test his hypothesis
Analytical Study
Analytical study is a system of procedures
and techniques of analysis applied to
quantitative data.
A system of mathematical models or
statistical techniques applicable to numerical
data.
Ex. Scientometrics
Analytical research is a systematic and
organized investigation or study that seeks to
understand, explain, and dissect complex
phenomena by examining their components and
relationships. It involves critically analyzing
data, facts, or information to draw meaningful
conclusions, identify patterns, and gain insights.
Purpose
It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying
and interpreting relationship.
It concentrates on analyzing data in depth
and examining relationships from various
angles by bringing in as many relevant
variables as possible in the analysis plan.
Historical Research
The systematic collection and evaluation of data related to
past occurrences in order to describe causes, effects, and
trends of those events that may help explain present
events and anticipate future events.
Data is often archival-including newspaper clippings,
photographs, etc.- and may include interviews.
Historical research is the research on past social
forces which have shaped the present. History is
a list of chronological events which help to
understand the present and to some extent, to
predict the future. Every social change is a result
of past forces and history is the record of these
changes.
Purpose
To draw explanations and generalizations from the past
trends in order to understand the present and to anticipate
the future.
It enables us to grasp our relationship with the past and to
plan more intelligently for the future.
The past contains the key to the present and the past and the
present influences the future.
It helps us in visualizing the society as a dynamic organism
and its structures and functions as evolving, steadily
growing and undergoing change and transformation.
Survey Research
Survey research is one of the most important areas of
measurement in applied social research. The broad area of
survey research encompasses any measurement
procedures that involve asking questions of respondents.
A "survey" can be anything form a short paper-and-pencil
feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth
interview.
Purpose
It is always conducted in a natural setting.
It seeks responses directly from the
respondents.
It can cover a very large population
A survey may involve an extensive study or an
intensive study.
A survey covers a definite geographical area, a
city, district, state
Case Study
A case study is a research methodology common in social
science.
It is based on an in-depth investigation of a single
individual, group, or event to explore causation in order to
find underlying principles
Purpose
To examine limited number of variables
case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal
examination of a single instance or event.
It provides a systematic way of looking at events,
collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the
results
Field research
Field research has traditionally been thought different
from methods of research conducted in a laboratory or
academic setting.
Purpose
The advantages of field research are that people are closer
to real world conditions and design the research in the
best way to discover the particular information required.
Research Design
The term “research design” means ‘drawing
for research’.
It is a systematic planning of conducting
research.
It aims to achieve goals of the research.
Definition
‘as the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
the relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure’-by Jahoda
‘a master plan, specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed
information’-by Zikmund
Need and Purpose
It helps in smooth sailing of the research process.
It saves the money, manpower and materials.
It helps the researchers for advance planning and
avoids duplication.
It helps to modify the research if any difficulties.
It gives reality to research.
Research Design Process
Selection of research topic/problem,
Framing research design,
Framing sampling design,
Collection of data,
Data analysis/editing, coding, processing and
preservation
Writing research reports
Characteristics of Good Research
Design
Theory-Grounded,
Environment,
Feasibility of Implementation,
Redundancy,
Efficient.
Cont…
It should be flexible
It should be economical
It should be unbiased
It should fulfill the objectives of the research
It should be more appropriate to all the
aspects of research.
Cont…
It should guide him to achieve correct results.
It provides scientific base for his research.
It also should facilitate to complete the
research work within the stipulated time.
Functions of Research Design
It provides a blueprint of research.
It limits (dictates) the boundaries of the
research activities.
It enables investigation to anticipate potential
problems
Components of Research Design
Title of the investigation
Purpose of the study
Review of related literature
Statement of the problem
Scope of the investigation
Cont…
Objectives of the study
Variables
Hypothesis
Selection of sample
Data Collection
Analysis of data
Types of Research Design
Experimental Designs
Non- Experimental Designs
Experimental Designs
There are two types
Quasi-experimental
Experimental
Non-Experimental Design
Case study designs/method.
Content analysis.
Ethnography.
Focus groups.
Network analysis and sociometry.
Hypotheses
The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine
whether there is enough statistical evidence in favor of a
certain belief about a parameter.
An hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation
or postulate by the researcher of what the researcher
considers the outcome of an investigation will be. It is
an informed/educated guess.
It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding
certain variables. It is the most specific way in which
an answer to a problem can be stated.
Define Hypothesis
A tentative statement about a population
parameter that might be true or wrong
The Difference Between An Hypothesis And A Problem
Both an hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body
of knowledge which supports or refutes an existing theory.
An hypothesis differs from a problem.
A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it
serves as the basis or origin from which an hypothesis is
derived.
An hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem.
A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas an
hypothesis can be tested and verified.
When is an Hypothesis Formulated
An hypothesis is formulated after the problem
has been stated and the literature study has
been concluded.
It is formulated when the researcher is
totally aware of the theoretical and empirical
background to the problem.
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF AN HYPOTHESIS
It offers explanations for the relationships between those
variables that can be empirically tested.
It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background
knowledge to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to
extend existing knowledge.
It gives direction to an investigation.
It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore
furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN HYPOTHESIS
It should have elucidating power.
It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the
phenomenon.
It must be verifiable.
It must be formulated in simple, understandable terms.
It should corresponds with existing knowledge.
Types of Hypotheses
1. Descriptive Hypotheses:
These are propositions that describe the characteristics
( such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The
variable may be an object, person, organization etc. ,
e.g., The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than
that of commerce graduates. The educational system is not
oriented to human resource needs of a country.
2. Relational Hypotheses.
These are propositions which describe the relationship
between tow variables.
e. g. , Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation
Upper – class people have fewer children than lower
class people.
Cont…
3. Causal Hypotheses
It state that the existence of, or a change in, one variable Causes or leads to an
effect on another variable.
The first variable is called the independent variable, and the latter the
dependent variable.
When dealing with causal relationships between variables the researcher must
consider the direction in which such relationship flow
e.g: which is cause and which is effect
4. Working Hypotheses
While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are
formed.
Initially they may not be very specific. In such cases, they
are referred to as ‘ working hypotheses’ which are subject
to modification as the investigation proceeds.
Cont…
. Null Hypotheses
This hypotheses are formulated for testing statistical
significance, since, this form is a convenient approach to
statistical analysis. As the test would nullify the null
hypotheses.
e.g., : There is a relationship between a family’s income and
expenditure on recreation, a null hypothesis may state: There is
no relationship between families income level and expenditure on
recreation.
6. Statistical Hypotheses
These are statements about a statistical population. These
are derived from a sample. These are quantitative in nature
in that they are numerically measurable
Cont…
eg: Group A is older than B’
Common Sense Hypotheses
It state the existence of empirical uniformities perceived
through day to day observations.
e.g., “ Shop-assistants in small shops lack motivation”
8. Complex Hypotheses
These aim at testing the existence of logically derived
relationships between empirical uniformities.
e.g., In the early stage human ecology described empirical
uniformities in the distribution of land values, industrial
concentrations, types of business and other phenomena.
9. Analytical Hypotheses:
It concerned with the relationship of analytic variables. These
hypotheses occur at the highest level of abstraction.
These specify relationship between changes in one property and
changes in another.
Eg., The study of human fertility might show empirical regularities by
wealth, education, region, and religion.
Characteristics of a Good Hypotheses
Conceptual Clarity
Specificity
Testability
Availability of Techniques
Theoretical relevance
Consistency
Objectivity
Simplicity
Sources of Hypotheses
Theory
Observation
Analogies
Intuition and personal experience
Findings of studies
State of Knowledge
Culture
Continuity of Research
Sampling
Sampling is the process
of selecting a small number of elements
from a larger defined target group
of elements such that
the information gathered
from the small group will allow judgments
to be made about the larger groups
Basics of Sampling Theory
Population
Element
Defined target
population
Sampling unit
Sampling frame
Sampling Error
Sampling error is any type of bias
that is attributable to mistakes
in either drawing a sample or
determining the sample size
Developing a Sampling Plan
1. Define the Population of Interest
2. Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible)
3. Select a Sampling Method
4. Determine Sample Size
5. Execute the Sampling Plan
Defining Population of Interest
Population of interest is entirely dependent
on Management Problem, Research
Problems, and Research Design.
Some Bases for Defining Population:
Geographic Area
Demographics
Usage/Lifestyle
Awareness
Sampling Frame
A list of population elements (people,
companies, houses, cities, etc.) from which
units to be sampled can be selected.
Difficult to get an accurate list.
Sample frame error occurs when certain
elements of the population are accidentally
omitted or not included on the list.
See Survey Sampling International for some
good examples
http://www.surveysampling.com/
Sampling Methods
Probability Nonprobability
sampling sampling
Types of Sampling Methods
Probability Nonprobability
• Simple random • Convenience
sampling sampling
• Systematic random • Judgment
sampling sampling
• Stratified random • Quota sampling
sampling • Snowball
• Cluster sampling sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is a method of
probability sampling in which
every unit has an equal nonzero
chance of being selected
Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling is a
method of
probability sampling
in which the defined
target population is ordered
and the sample is selected
according to position using a skip interval
Steps in Drawing a Systematic Random Sample
1: Obtain a list of units that contains an
acceptable frame of the target population
2: Determine the number of units in the list and
the desired sample size
3: Compute the skip interval
4: Determine a random start point
5: Beginning at the start point, select the units
by choosing each unit that corresponds to the
skip interval
Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling is a
method of
probability sampling
in which the population is divided
into different subgroups and samples
are selected from each
Steps in Drawing a Stratified Random Sample
1: Divide the target population into
homogeneous subgroups or strata
2: Draw random samples fro each
stratum
3: Combine the samples from each
stratum into a single sample of the target
population
Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a sampling technique used when
"natural" groupings are evident in a statistical
population.
It is often used in marketing research.
It divide population into Comparable groups: Schools,
Cities etc..
cluster sampling is to reduce the average cost per
interview
the technique given more accurate results when most of
the variation in the population is within the groups,
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Convenience sampling relies
upon convenience and access
Judgment sampling relies upon belief
that participants fit characteristics
Quota sampling emphasizes representation
of specific characteristics
Snowball sampling relies upon respondent
referrals of others with like characteristics
Convenience samples: samples drawn at the convenience
of the interviewer. People tend to make the selection at
familiar locations and to choose respondents who are like
themselves.
Judgment samples: samples that require a judgment or an
“educated guess” on the part of the interviewer as to who
should represent the population. Also, “judges” (informed
individuals) may be asked to suggest who should be in the
sample.
Quota samples: samples that set a specific number of
certain types of individuals to be interviewed
snowball sampling: is a technique for developing a
research sample where existing study subjects recruit future
subjects from among their acquaintances.
Factors to Consider in Sample Design
Research objectives Degree of accuracy
Resources Time frame
Knowledge of
target population Research scope
Statistical analysis needs
Data Collection
76
Data collection possibilities are wide and
varied with any one method of collection not
inherently better than any other
Each has pros and cons that must be weighed
up in view of a rich and complex context
The Data Collection Process
77
All methods of collection require rigorous
and systematic design and execution that
includes
thorough planning
well considered development
effective piloting
weighed modification
deliberate implementation and execution
appropriate management and analysis
Surveys
78
Surveying involves gathering information
from individuals using a questionnaire
Surveys can
reach a large number of respondents
generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical
data - as well as some qualitative data
and offer confidentiality / anonymity
Designing survey instruments capable of
generating credible data, however, can be
difficult
Survey Types
79
Surveys can be
descriptive or explanatory
involve entire populations or samples of populations
capture a moment or map trends
can be administered in a number of ways
Survey Construction
80
Survey construction involves
formulating questions and response categories
writing up background information and instruction
working through organization and length
determining layout and design
Interviewing
81
Interviewing involves asking respondents a
series of open-ended questions
Interviews can generate both standardized
quantifiable data, and more in-depth
qualitative data
However, the complexities of people and the
complexities of communication can create
many opportunities for miscommunication
and misinterpretation
Interview Types
82
Interviews can range from
formal to informal
structured to unstructured
can be one on one or involve groups
Conducting Interviews
83
When conducting your interviews you will
need to
question, prompt, and probe in ways that help you
gather rich data
actively listen and make sense of what is being said
manage the overall process
Observation
84
Observation relies on the researchers’ ability
to gather data though their senses - and
allows researchers to document actual
behaviour rather than responses related to
behaviour
However, the observed can act differently
when surveilled, and observations can be
tainted by a researcher’s worldview
Observation Types
85
Observation can range from
non-participant to participant
candid to covert
from structured to unstructured
The Observation Process
86
The observation process is sometimes treated
casually, but is a method that needs to be
treated as rigorously as any other
The process should include planning,
observing, recording, reflecting, and
authenticating
Experimentation
87
Experimentation explores cause and effect
relationships by manipulating independent
variables in order to see if there is a
corresponding effect on a dependent variable
Experimentation
88
Pure experimentation requires both a
controlled environment and the use of a
randomly assigned control group
This can be difficult to achieve in human
centred experiments conducted in the real-
world
Real-World Experiments
89
There are many experiments that can only be
carried out in the messy uncontrolled
environments of the real-world, so the search
for cause and effect will require tradeoffs
between real-world contexts and a controlled
environment
questionnaire surveys (includes mail)
Advantages:
• Quick and easy to administer.
• Can get a large amount of information in a short time.
• Allows for employee participation.
• Does not require trained interviewer.
• Relatively less expensive.
Disadvantages:
• Quality of information related to the quality of the questionnaire.
• Must have high school reading and writing ability to complete one.
• Often needs follow-up interview or observation.
• May be difficult to construct.
• May have low response rate.
• Responses may be incomplete.
• Responses may be difficult to interpret (open-ended)
Online surveys:
• The use of the Internet has made a huge difference to the way surveys are
conducted and has
become a science unto itself.
• quick to implement. Lower cost, higher
90
Face-to-face interviews :
Most informative method of qualitative data collection because
the human interaction of face-to-face interviews provides the opportunity to
probe for insights and build on responses for greater value.
Door-to-door: People are contacted at home and in person (abandoned in
Developed due to high cost of transport, staff)
Street / shopping mall intercepts: Popular in Developed Economies (some
Malls consider a nuisance).
Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the
researcher has ready access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone.
Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face
interview but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The
sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of
the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.
91
Web based questionnaires :
A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based
research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an
address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type
of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method
include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access
a computer. Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a
hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal
interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along
a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database.
This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the
interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of
data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have
computer and typing skills.
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